A. 經濟學精髓句子
【1】--【擇偶觀】
美國有位經濟學家發表了篇論文，從交易學角度分析擇偶觀。假如把男人、女人分為ABCD四種優秀程度，那現在的現狀就是，A男想找B女，B男想找C女，C男找D女，所以D男就剩了。反之，女人方面卻不同，即是，ABCD女都想找A男。最後結果是剩下A女和D男。經濟學里有個案例：兩個人在森林裡遇到一隻熊，那麼對手不會是熊!只要比另一個人快一步就勝利。
【2】--【博弈論與追女生】
如四個男生都去追一個漂亮女生，那她一定會擺足架子，誰也不答理;這時男生再去追別的女孩，別人也不會接受，因為沒人願當次品。但是，如果他們四個先追其她女生，那個漂亮女孩就會被孤立，這時再追她就簡單多了。——數學大師納什關於博弈論最簡單表述。
【3】--【「天下沒有免費的午餐」由來】
這句話最早由經濟學大師弗里德曼提出來。它的本義是即使你不用付錢吃飯，可你還是要付出代價的。因為你吃這頓飯的時間，可以用來做其他事情，比如談一筆100萬的生意，你把時間用於吃這頓飯，就失去了這些本來能有的價值。這是機會成本的概念。以前你知道嗎?
【4】--【經濟學笑話】
課堂上，教授講授經濟學：「何謂第一產業?喂牛，養羊。何謂第二產業?殺牛，宰羊。何謂第三產業?吃牛肉，喝羊湯。」有學生問：「那麼，文化產業呢?」教授眼睛一亮：「問得好!不愧是俺的好學生。」然後回答：「所謂文化產業，就是吹牛皮，出羊相!」
【5】--【窮人稅】
經濟學上有個說法叫「窮人稅」，最典型的是買彩票的人大多都是窮人(經常買彩票的兄弟不要介意)，這是他們承受能力和支付能力范圍以內能夠實現財富劇增的少有機會，但中獎畢竟是小概率，長期以往，細水長流，出得多，進得少，就權當繳稅了。
【6】--【帕累托分布】
把全世界每個人擁有的財富從大到小排起來，一邊是一個纖細但高聳入雲的頭，另一邊是漫長的一望無際，低矮的讓人絕望的尾。這樣的分布在經濟學里被灌名為「帕累托分布」。
【7】--【無利潤投資】
「請舉例說明，什麼叫無利潤投資。」經濟學教授提問。「帶自己的妹妹出去玩。」一個男學生答道。
【8】--【幸福公式】
經濟學中有個公式：幸福=效用：期望值。如果你男友發獎金，拿到1000塊，可你期望他給自己買10000塊的LV包，1000除以10000，幸福感只有0.1。但如果你的期望是讓男友請自己吃頓200塊的西餐，1000除以200，幸福感是5。要獲得愛情中的幸福，最好不要讓慾望影響你的生活。
【9】--【長線投資】
一女孩拿著三角錢來到瓜園買瓜，瓜農見她錢太少，便想糊弄小姑娘離開，指著一個未長大的小瓜說：「三角錢只能買到那個小瓜」，女孩答應了，興高采烈的把錢遞給瓜農，瓜農很驚訝：「這個瓜還沒熟，你要它怎麼吃呢?」女孩：「交上錢這瓜就屬於我了，等瓜長大熟了我再來取吧。」
【10】--【快樂痛苦四原則】
一次撿75元，和先撿50元後撿25元，選哪個?一次丟75元，和先丟50元再丟25元，選哪個?實驗證明，多數人選分開撿￥75，一起丟￥75。這就是經濟學的快樂痛苦四原則：①n個好消息要分開發布;②n個壞消息要一起發布;③一個大的壞消息和一個小的好消息，分別公布;④一個大的好消息和一個小的壞消息，一起公布。
B. 百辯經濟學電子書txt全集下載
百辯經濟學 txt全集小說附件已上傳到網路網盤，點擊免費下載：
C. child labor
Child labour
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A young boy recycling garbage in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam in 2006
Child labour, or child labor, refers to the employment of children at regular and sustained labour. This practice is considered exploitative by many international organizations and is illegal in many countries. Child labour was utilized to varying extents through most of history, but entered public dispute with the beginning of universal schooling, with changes in working conditions ring instrialization, and with the emergence of the concepts of workers' and children's rights.
Child labour is common in some parts of the world, and can be factory work, mining,[1] prostitution, quarrying, agriculture, helping in the parents' business, having one's own small business (for example selling food), or doing odd jobs. Some children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants (where they may also work as waiters). Other children are forced to do tedious and repetitive jobs such as: assembling boxes, polishing shoes, stocking a store's procts, or cleaning. However, rather than in factories and sweatshops, most child labour occurs in the informal sector, "selling many things on the streets, at work in agriculture or hidden away in houses—far from the reach of official labour inspectors and from media scrutiny." And all the work that they did was done in all types of weather; and was also done for minimal pay. As long as there is family poverty there will be child labor. [2]
According to UNICEF, there are an estimated 158 million children aged 5 to 14 in child labour worldwide, excluding child domestic labour.[3]
Banana
Main article: Children's rights
The United Nations and the International Labor Organization consider child labour exploitative,[4][5] with the UN stipulating, in article 32 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child that:
...States Parties recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's ecation, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development. Although globally there is an estimated 250 milllion children working.[5]
The first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in Britain in the first half of the 19th century. Children younger than nine were not allowed to work and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours.[6]
In many developed countries,[7] it is considered inappropriate or exploitative if a child below a certain age works, excluding household chores or schoolwork. An employer is often not allowed to hire a child below a certain age. This minimum age depends on the country; child labor laws in the United States set the minimum age to work in an establishment without parents' consent and restrictions at age 16.
During the Instrial Revolution, children as young as four were employed in proction factories with dangerous, and often fatal, working conditions.[8] Based on this understanding of the use of children as labourers, it is now considered by wealthy countries to be a human rights violation, and is outlawed, while some poorer countries may allow or tolerate it.
In the 1990s every country in the world except for Somalia and the United States became a signatory to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, or CRC. However according to the United Nations Foundation Somalia signed the convention in 2002, the delay of the signing was believed to been e to Somalia not having a government to sign the convention [9]. The CRC provides the strongest,[citation needed] most consistent[citation needed] international legal language prohibiting illegal child labour; however it does not make child labour illegal.
A boy repairing a tire in Gambia
Poor families often rely on the labours of their children for survival, and sometimes it is their only source of income. This type of work is often hidden away because it is not always in the instrial sector. Child labour is employed in subsistence agriculture and in the urban informal sector; child domestic work is also important. In order to benefit children, child labour prohibition has to address the al challenge of providing them with both short-term income and long-term prospects. Some youth rights groups, however, feel that prohibiting work below a certain age violates human rights, recing children's options and leaving them subject to the whims of those with money.[citation needed]
In 1999 the Global March Against Child Labour the movement began with a worldwide march when thousands of people marched together to jointly put forth the message against child labour. The march, which started on January 17, 1998, touched every corner of the globe, built immense awareness and led to high level of participation from the masses. This march finally culminated at the ILO Conference in Geneva. The voice of the marchers was heard and reflected in the draft of the ILO Convention against the worst forms of child labour. The following year, the Convention was unanimously adopted at the ILO Conference in Geneva. Today, with 169 countries having ratified the convention so far, it has become the fastest ratified convention in the history of ILO. A large role in this was played by the Global March through our member partners.
In an influential paper on "The Economics of Child Labor" in the American Economic Review (1998), Kaushik Basu and Pham Hoang Van argue that the primary cause of child labour is parental poverty. That being so, they caution against the use of a legislative ban against child labour, and argue that should be used only when there is reason to believe that a ban on child labour will cause alt wages to rise and so compensate adequately the households of the poor children. Child labour is still widely used today in many countries, including India and Bangladesh. CACL estimated that there are between 70 and 80 million child labourers in India.[10] Even though the respective national laws state that no child under the age of 14 may work, the law is often ignored. Children as young as 11 go to work for up to 20 hours a day in sweatshops making items for US companies, such as Hanes, Wal-mart, and Target. They get paid as little as 1 cent per item proced.
Companies use children because they're cheaper to hire than alts. Companies that proce massive amounts of procts like shoes and clothes often use these illegal techniques to have more profit.
Child labour happens for 61% in Asia, 32% in Africa, and 7% in Latin America, 1% in US, Canada, Europe and other wealthy nations In Asia, 22% of the workforce is children. In Latin America, 17% of the workforce is children. The proportion of child laborers varies a lot among countries and even regions inside those countries.
To stop child labour the police often checks on factories that are suspected to use children.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Child labour in Victorian Britain
* 2 Defense of child labour
* 3 See also
* 4 References
* 5 External links
[edit] Child labour in Victorian Britain
Main article: Victorian era
The Victorian era became notorious for employing young children in factories and mines and as chimney sweeps.[11] Child labour played an important role in the Instrial Revolution from its outset, often brought about by economic hardship, Charles Dickens for example worked at the age of 12 in the Blacking Factory, with his family in debtor's prison. The children of the poor were expected to help towards the family budget, often working long hours in dangerous jobs and low wages.[12]
Agile boys were employed by the chimney sweeps; small children were employed to scramble under machinery to retrieve cotton bobbins; and children were also employed to work in coal mines to crawl through tunnels too narrow and low for alts. Children also worked as errand boys, crossing sweepers, shoe blacks, or selling matches, flowers and other cheap goods.[12] Some children undertook work as apprentices to respectable trades, such as building or as domestic servants (there were over 120,000 domestic servants in London in the mid 18th Century). Working hours were long: builders worked 64 hours a week in summer and 52 in winter, while domestic servants worked 80 hour weeks. A high number of children also worked as prostitutes.[13] Children as young as three were put to work. In coal mines children began work at the age of five and generally died before the age of 25. Many children (and alts) worked 16 hour days. As early as 1802 and 1819 Factory Acts were passed to regulate the working hours of workhouse children in factories and cotton mills to 12 hours per day. These acts were largely ineffective and after radical agitation, by for example the "Short Time Committees" in 1831, a royal commission recommended in 1833 that children aged 11-18 should work a maximum of 12 hours per day, children aged 9-11 a maximum of eight hours, and children under the age of nine were no longer permitted to work. This act however only applied to the textile instry, and further agitation led to another act in 1847 limiting both alts and children to 10 hour working days. [13]
This order by the Honourable Chief Justice comes when the government is taking an extremely retrogressive stance on the issue of child labour in sweatshops in India and threatening 'retaliatory measures' against child rights organisations. [3]
In a parallel development, Global March Against Child Labour and BBA are in dialogue with the GAP Inc. and other stakeholders to work out a positive strategy to prevent the entry of child labour in to sweatshops and device a mechanism of monitoring and remedial action. GAP Inc. Senior Vice President, Dan Henkle in a statement said: "We have been making steady progress, and the children are now under the care of the local government. As our policy requires, the vendor with which our order was originally placed will be required to provide the children with access to schooling and job training, pay them an ongoing wage and guarantee them jobs as soon as they reach the legal working age. We will now work with the local government and with Global March to ensure that our vendor fulfils these obligations." [4] [5]
Austrian school economist Murray Rothbard also defended child labor, stating that British and American children of the pre- and post-Instrial Revolution lived and suffered in infinitely worse conditions where jobs were not available for them and went "voluntarily and gladly" to work in factories.[18]
However, the British historian and socialist E.P. Thompson in The Making of the English Working Class draws a qualitative distinction between child domestic work and participation in the wider (waged) labor market.[8] Further, the usefulness of the experience of the instrial revolution in making predictions about current trends has been disputed. Economic historian Hugh Cunningham, author of Children and Childhood in Western Society Since 1500, notes that:
"Fifty years ago it might have been assumed that, just as child labor had declined in the developed world in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, so it would also, in a trickle-down fashion, in the rest of the world. Its failure to do that, and its re-emergence in the developed world, raise questions about its role in any economy, whether national or global."[17]
Child laborers on a farm in Maine, October 1940
Big Bill Haywood, a leading labor organizer and leader of the Western Federation of Miners and a founding member and leader of the Instrial Workers of the World famously claimed "the worst thief is he who steals the playtime of children!" [19]
According to Thomas DeGregori, an economics professor at the University of Houston, in an article published by the Cato Institute, a libertarian think-tank operating in Washington D.C., "it is clear that technological and economic change are vital ingredients in getting children out of the workplace and into schools. Then they can grow to become proctive alts and live longer, healthier lives. However, in poor countries like Bangladesh, working children are essential for survival in many families, as they were in our own heritage until the late 19th century. So, while the struggle to end child labour is necessary, getting there often requires taking different routes -- and, sadly, there are many political obstacles.
童工
維基網路，自由的網路全書
跳轉到： 導航, 搜索
童工 是指僱用／利用兒童從事經濟生產活動，包括當童星、報童、少年兵、工廠工人等。 此類童工是指小於合法年齡的人，例如18歲或者20歲，包括青少年及兒童。在很長一段時間，童工並不被認為是一個問題，當義務教育和勞工與兒童權利深入人心以後，這才成為一個廣為爭論的話題。
童工的工資一般比較成年人為低，不過，著名的童星是例外，比如哈利波特男主角。 因此僱用童工被很多國際組織認為是剝削行徑，比如聯合國，國際勞工組織。
童工的最常見形式是少年兵和雛妓，其次是合法的兒童演員和歌手，還有就是在學校假期時進行的農業、工業勞作。一些協助家人工作，如到家人開設的商店幫忙的兒童也算是童工的一類。
童工在不少戰亂國家地區是常見的，因為成年人非自然死亡，人均壽命短，成年人生產力少，「窮苦家庭早當家」，家中沒有生產力，只有兒童或老人。 在沒有社會福利安全網的地區（第三世界），被發達國家強權禁止童工，又是另一種無奈。
童工之害：兒童沒有受教育的機會，他們在成長期失去學習廣泛文化知識的機會，令當地區無望轉營成為知識型經濟社會。
目錄
[隱藏]
* 1 分類
* 2 工種分類
o 2.1 輕量工作（light work）
o 2.2 危險工作（hazardous work）
o 2.3 最惡劣形式的工作（the worst form of work）
* 3 為什麼有童工？
o 3.1 政府並未嚴格執行有關公約
o 3.2 家庭貧窮
o 3.3 社會制度
o 3.4 童工的工作待遇較差
o 3.5 工作性質
* 4 對禁止童工政策的不同意見
* 5 相關
* 6 外部參考
[編輯] 分類
根據國際勞工組織（International Labour Organization）公約138及182條，童工可分為三類：
* 11歲或以下、從事任何經濟活動的兒童；
* 12至14歲、從事適量「輕量工作」（light work）以外的經濟活動的兒童；
* 18歲以下、從事任何「危險工作」（hazardous work）的兒童。
[編輯] 工種分類
根據國際勞工標准，盡管兒童可以工作，可是工種的危險程度以及對兒童身心的影響程度是相當關鍵的。工作普遍分為三類，包括「輕量工作」（light work）、「危險工作」（hazardous work）和「最惡劣形式的工作」（the worst form of work）：
[編輯] 輕量工作（light work）
這是指該工作不會損害工作者的健康和發展，並且不阻礙他們上學和接受職業培訓的機會。 一般國家都會容許13至15歲的兒童從事「輕量工作」，但有關工作時數和種類則因地而異。而這些工作可包括家務清潔、輕巧的農耕種植工作、店務員、售票員、送報員、包裝、運送等。
[編輯] 危險工作（hazardous work）
不論是工作性質本身或是工作地點，只要會危及工作者的健康、安全、心理或不道德的，這類工作便屬於「危險工作」。 國際勞工組織建議各國必需立法規管「危險工作」，並只能讓18歲或以上的人士從事這些工作。一般來說，這些工作包括采礦、編織毛毯、製造磚塊和玻璃、建造業、製造業、販賣酒精、水底工作（underwater work）、控制機械、街頭販賣及娛樂事業（如在夜總會、酒吧、賭場、馬戲團等工作）等。
[編輯] 最惡劣形式的工作（the worst form of work）
這些工作包括將人當作奴隸、販賣、用作抵債；強迫參與戰爭；賣淫、從事色情事業；製造或販賣毒品，以及所有危及工作者的健康、安全、心理或不道德的工作。 而所有18歲以下的青少年是嚴禁參與或從事這類工作。（當然，就算是成年人也不能從事賣淫、製造或販賣毒品以及所有危及工作者的健康、安全、心理或不道德的工作。【部分國家法律除外】）
[編輯] 為什麼有童工？
盡管有相當多國家簽定了《兒童權利公約》和國際勞工組織公約，為什麼至今世界上，仍有眾多兒童因工作而失去上學和接受職業培訓的機會，有些更因此而健康受損、心靈受創，甚至失去性命？
[編輯] 政府並未嚴格執行有關公約
《兒童權利公約》和國際勞工組織公約的締約國，需要因應公約的要求，制訂相關法律以禁止國內使用童工和保障工作的兒童利益。然而，國法雖存，政府卻因為各種問題而未有嚴格執行。 可是，實際執行以上法規的工作，政府交由當地勞動監察部門和公安局、貿易發展局、工商行政管理局、教育局等部門負責，而這些部門的人手嚴重不足，以致難於執法。
[編輯] 家庭貧窮
家庭貧窮是迫使兒童要工作的最主要原因。國際勞工組織在1996年的調查發現，兒童的薪酬占整個貧困家庭收入的五分一至四分一。這收入對不少貧窮戶來說，可算舉足輕重。貧困戶不單缺乏資產，不少更落入欠債的困境當中。為償還家庭的債務，家人讓兒童成為「抵債童工」，要兒童為債主工作或是賣兒童給債主以抵銷債務。
[編輯] 社會制度
在一些貧窮國家，政府法例是容許有童工的。 此外，不少貧窮國家也鼓勵兒童當家佣，兒童的父母一般也認為這能改善孩子的生活質素，因為僱主會供應孩子衣食住行各方面的需要。可是，不少兒童傭工卻因此陷入低工資、遭虐打或性侵犯，甚至是成為妓女的開始。
[編輯] 童工的工作待遇較差
國際勞工組織發現，不論是高危工作如采礦，或是簡單工作如包裝等，成人都是與兒童一起工作。盡管成人可以取代兒童進行這些工作，可是僱主為減低成本，於是僱用童工，因為童工的工資往往比成人少。 更重要的是，童工比較單純和可靠，對雇員權利的認識亦較少，故此他們比成年工人更願意受僱主控制，如願意加班、不會曠工、不會組織工會及不會偷竊等。
[編輯] 工作性質
童工較多受聘於低技術、勞工密集的行業，例如服務業、餐飲業和製造業等。因為這些行業工作的前線工人，學歷高低不是受聘與否的關鍵，也不會影響工作質素。此外，有些行業如足球生產、在衣服上釘珠等工作，僱主一般相信只有擁有輕巧、靈活雙手的兒童才能做得好，故此聘用了大量低學歷的童工。
[編輯] 對禁止童工政策的不同意見
部份新自由主義經濟學者反對所有對勞動市場的管制，包括禁止童工。如米爾頓·佛利民和瓦特·布拉克所著《百辯經濟學》（Defending the Undefendable）中都主張，禁止童工的法令反而會剝奪貧窮兒童求生存的機會，強制兒童去學校受教育而不允許工作，對兒童不一定是最好的選擇。香港富商黎智英曾說：「我當過月入港幣六十元的童工。那個時候要是有了法定最低工資，哪怕法定水平是月薪一百元吧，誰會多花四十元僱用我這個不懂事的十二歲小孩？找不到工作糊口，要不是餓死街頭，我便大有可能鋌而走險、作姦犯科了。」（《「爭取最低工資」，壹周刊》第869期，2006.11.2）。