中國經濟發展的英文版

㈠ 中國經濟的發展英語範文

RMB exchange rate reform--decided out of China's own need
When the national economic statistics of the first half of this year were just released on July 20, people were immersed in analysis and judgment of the economic situation.

At 7:00 on the evening of July 21, after only one day, the People's Bank of China (PBOC), the central bank, announced a world-shaking news: With approval from the State Council, from July 21, China began to institute a regulated, managed floating exchange rate regime based on market supply and demand and in reference to a basket of currencies.

A reform independently decided out of own need
The reform is an important policy decision made out of the actual needs of China's reform and development, rather than under certain international pressure.

As is emphasized by Zhou Xiaochuan, governor of the central bank: "This represents a kind of self-decision and is the need of China's march to a socialist market economy and optimization of resources allocation and the need for reform and long-term stable development, rather than a result gained after communication and consultation with other countries."

In 1994, China reformed its double-track exchange rate system and introced the unification of exchange rates. After the unification, China instituted a managed floating exchange rate regime based on market supply and demand.

In plain words, this exchange rate system means: Selling or buying foreign exchange by enterprises and indivials has to be carried out through designated foreign exchange banks; these designated banks, in turn, enter the inter-bank foreign exchange market, or sell their surplus foreign exchange to other banks to gain the people's currency, or use the RMB to buy foreign currencies from other banks to make up the shortage of foreign exchange; this buying and selling, supply and demand give rise to price parity between the RMB and foreign currencies, or called the RMB exchange rate; meanwhile, the central bank sets up a certain floating limit to the exchange rate, foreign exchange is bought up when supply exceeds demand, sold out when it is in short supply. Doing so aims to maintain a basic stability of the RMB exchange rate through such a regulating method.

Before 1997, RMB exchange rate was stable with a bit rise, and for this reason, people at home and abroad had growing confidence in the RMB. But thereafter the Asian financial crisis broke out, in order to prevent an alternate depreciation of currencies in Asian neighbors and a resultant deepening of the crisis, China, as a large responsible country, promised not to devalue the RMB and took the initiative to narrow the floating band of exchange rate, but the goal for instituting a managed floating exchange rate regime remained unchanged.

We should say that the managed floating exchange rate system based on market supply and demand conforms to China's national conditions for it adapts to the stage of China's economic development, the level of financial supervision and administration and enterprises' sustainability. However, along with the evolvement of the situation, the necessity of perfecting the RMB exchange rate determination mechanism has revealed itself with each passing day. In other words, what is to be changed in the RMB exchange rate reform is not the RMB exchange rate system, still less permission of a revaluation, but rather it is designed to perfect the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism.

Improving the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism is the inherent requirement for the establishment of a sound socialist market economy system, as well as an important content of deepening reform to the economic-financial system and strengthening the macro-control system.

In recent years, along with the rapid growth of China's exports and foreign investments, correspondingly, in the balance of payments statement, it is shown a "double surpluses" of the current account and the capital account; in the inter-bank foreign exchange market, it is manifested as a continuous stream of foreign exchange and that the supply exceeds the demand.

In order to stabilize the RMB exchange rate, the central bank cannot but passively purchase a huge amount of foreign exchange, correspondingly, it will provide a huge supply of RMB, consequently increasing the monetary base.

Statistics show that the basic currency supplied in such a way has accounted for 90 percent of the total of basic currency. The independence of the monetary policy is subject to serious challenge. The too rapid growth of money supply would give rise to such problems as investment expansion, inflationary pressure and assets bubble.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism and allowing it to be more elastic make it possible to give better play to the basic role of the market in the allocation of resources; this helps improve the initiative and efficiency of financial regulation and control and thus helps strengthen and improve macro regulation and control.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism is concive to implementation of the strategy for the sustainable development of the economy based mainly on domestic demand and to optimization of resources allocation.

Experts put it frankly that if the original exchange rate formation mechanism is stuck to for a long time, it will likely affect improvement of the economic structure.

Firstly, it will encourage the uneven development between foreign-related departments and domestic departments.

Secondly, it will affect the coordinated proportion among the three major instries (primary, secondary and tertiary).

Thirdly, it will hamper the normal transfer of instry from coastal areas to the inland. Inordinate stability of the exchange rate makes it possible for rough machining labor-intensive proction to exist in coastal areas and to lack driving force and pressure to shift toward central and western regions.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism and properly increasing the elasticity of exchange rate will increase the uncertainty of risk capital flows gains, which helps curb massive unilateral flows of capital, guard against and obviate financial risks and maintain financial stability.

Excessive rigidity of exchange rate reces the exchange rate risks of venture capital flows, is likely to cause massive in and out of venture capital and to bring impacts on economic development and financial stability. The Mexican financial crisis in 1994 and the Asian financial crisis in 1997 were both directly associated with this.

Regarding this, Zhou Xiaochuan has a very vivid metaphor. He said: "A fixed exchange rate is like a shield in the hand when fighting, however you attack me, I will remain unmoved; if I fail to hold on, the impact will cause influence. A floating exchange rate is like a foam-rubber cushion, if you want to fight your way in, I'll react softly, ok, you've come in, but I won't let you hit me; when you want to quit, I'll give you a pinch and let you go only after you have taken a layer of your skin off."

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism facilitates the development of the foreign economy. This move helps spur the enterprise to strengthen technical innovation, management innovation and the creation of a brand name and to strengthen marketing, after-sale service, thereby fundamentally enhance the enterprise's competitiveness; it also helps maintain a basic balance between import and export and improve trading conditions.

Reform is a must and is imminent.

Experts put it frankly that if RMB exchange rate reform is delayed indefinitely, it will bring about three major risks.

First is the risk of domestic economic bubble. If the monetary base grows too big, it will cause inflation when flowing to the commodity market; when the money flows to the capital market, it will lead to a bubble of assets. The emergence of economic bubble will aggravate the frailty of the financial system and will rece the capability to resist monetary impacts.

Second is the risk of weakening the independence of monetary policy. The principle of the "Mundell ternary paradox" tells us that of the three things: full capital opening, independent monetary policy and stable exchange rate, a country can only choose two, and cannot have all three.

Third is the risk of a reversion of the situation. If the exchange rate must be reformed, then an active reform is better than a passive one; reform carried out under revaluation pressure is better than reform carried out under devaluation pressure.

Internationally, since the 1990s, Poland has experienced the evolution from a managed floating exchange rate system under which its currency was pegged to one, or a basket of currencies to a free floating exchange rate system. Because its exchange rate system was actively adjusted in light of changes in domestic and foreign situations, therefore it could avoid to the maximum possible economic-social upheavals.

While Thailand had, before 1997, all along pegged its currency to the US dollar without changing its exchange rate system, as a result, the country was compelled to drastically devalue its currency ring the Asian financial crisis, thus resulting in the outbreak of the monetary and financial crisis.

The opportunity for exchange rate reform often appears only in a twinkle. When opportunity comes, it is imperative to seize it!

To put it in a nutshell, RMB exchange rate reform is by no means "you want me to reform it", but rather it is "I want to change it"!

Part 1. Part 2. Part 3. Part 4. Part 5. Part 6. Part 7. Part 8.

參考資料：People's Daily Online --- http://english.people.com.cn/

㈡ 為什麼中國應該優先發展經濟英文版

we all know, in any process of economic restructuring, financial institutions and financial systems set up arrangements are of the utmost importance. Many studies confirm the results of the financial system in economic growth an important role. For countries with economies in transition, looking for an appropriate model of the financial system will face in different countries in the institutional arrangements of the great differences. But one thing is common, that is, they have a huge banking system, financial reform and liberalization did not exist before the capital market. Russia's capital markets is accompanied by business arising from the privatization process, the situation is the small size of the capital markets, intermediaries are not fully developed, can not complete the country's economic restructuring and promote economic development functions. As a result, the banking system to play a role to a large extent on the impact of the decision and even economic development.

The results of financial liberalization: the secondary banking system

Russia's financial liberalization important is to break the former Soviet Union to implement a single banking system, the establishment of the secondary banking system. This process is completed in two phases.

The first phase began in 1987, mainly to the original restructuring of the Soviet Union National Bank, the establishment of a new banking system. It consists of the Soviet Union National Bank and five specialized banks: the Bank of Foreign Economic, Instrial Construction Bank, Bank of agro-instrial, residential and community development banks, savings banks, such as the Soviet Union. This is a clear division of the six banks, carry out their ties. In addition to the national banking system, the beginning of the formation of a number of joint-stock commercial banks and cooperative banking system has shown characteristics of diversification. However, at the time of the Soviet Union from all walks of life on the stage of the reform did not give a positive evaluation that banking reform is to change the bank's presence in the form of its essence has not changed, the reform is unsuccessful because of lack of the necessary precondition for economic: No To overcome the economic growth rate of decline in proction efficiency has not improved, and the financial situation continued to deteriorate, budget deficits have to rely on loans to make up for. Under such conditions, the banking reform is not possible to succeed.

The second phase of banking reform in December 1990 published the "Soviet Union National Bank Act" and "Law on Banks and Banking Activities", and these laws are implemented at the same time, "the Central Bank of Russian Federation" and "Bank of Russian Federation And the activities of the Bank Act. " Legal recognition of the Bank is an independent corporate body, is an independent economic entity. Of the Central Bank and commercial banks also made a distinction between the functions. However, e to collapse of the Soviet Union and other reasons, these two laws in 1995 until after the real implementation. The second phase of the main features of the reform is to continue to achieve decentralization of the banking system to the instrial sector in the form of the establishment of China Construction Bank, Bank of agro-instrial and residential community development banks have been transformed into an independent or regional commercial banks. From the form of ownership, commercial banks are the most widely adopted by the joint-stock system. According to the Central Bank of Russia, from April 1996 onwards, the new Russian commercial banks are required to register 200 million ECU's own capital, in July 1998 after this amount increased to 5,000,000 European Currency Unit. Banking reform, the number of Russian commercial banks grew quickly. In early 1989, when only 43 commercial banks, early in 1990 to 224, early in 1991 has reached 1357 and early 1995 are 2486 are eligible to engage in banking business of commercial banks, the branches up to 5460. As the economy continues to slide, in 1995 after the closure of a large number of commercial banks so that commercial banks began to rece the number. To the 1998 financial crisis, a total of 1697 credit organizations (including commercial banks), the branch 8050. To January 2003, the Russian credit organizations to 1330, 1279 commercial banks, non-bank credit institutions 51.

In order to create conditions to attract foreign investment, Russia opened the door to the banking sector, foreign banks began to enter Russia. They were involved in a range of domestic banks with little or no difference. January 2003 belong to the 100% foreign investment capital of 29 banks, more than 50% foreign equity participation of 10 banks and credit institutions of foreign equity participation of a total of 127. Russia's economy in their role in the continued strengthening.

In short, from the beginning of 1987 the bank reform, so that the Russian banking system is a fundamental change: a variety of economic entities have received a start-up banks; the establishment of a secondary banking system, the Central Bank of Russia focus on the currency, the secondary Bank to commercial banks; banking operations into the orbit of the law, promulgated in December 1990 of the legal norms of the Central Bank and commercial banks act; bank shares to realize capital, and diverse forms of ownership to the establishment of commercial banks. At the same time, the banking instry and the real economy in the mutual penetration to the financial instry in recent years, the most typical of the Group; the realization of the commercial banking, commercial banking business aims to make a profit. To this end, the commercial banking business to a comprehensive, all-round development.

The banking system and real economy growth - total amount and structure of the analysis point of view

Russia's economic transition process, the decline in investment in the real economy has become the greatest obstacle to economic recovery. In the 1991-1998 period of reform, investment in the real economy declined by 76%. Capital formation from the point of view, declining investment is an important reason is that the banking system to the real economy can not provide adequate sources of funding. Since the 1998 crisis, the Russian economic development and stable momentum, the proction sector growth to control inflation, the ruble exchange rate stability, increase people's income. The last 3 years, Russian GDP increased by 20% over the same period grew by only 9% of the developed countries. However, all of which was mainly e to the use of natural resources. In the long term, low fixed capital investment, machinery and equipment, and so will the aging of the Russian role in impeding economic growth. It is clear that sustained economic growth to a large extent dependent on a well-developed banking system. But in the past and the present situation of the Russian banking system can ill afford the economic development of long-term stability needed financial support.

According to the British "Banker" magazine in 1998 for the 1000 World Bank by asset size and capital position of the Russian commercial banks are lagging behind. The inclusion of the world's pre-1000 Russian silver
Only 12, most of them belonging to foreign equity participation of banks, accounting for the total number of Russian commercial banks less than 1%. Russia's state-owned Bank of Russia's largest savings bank, the concentrate in the domestic one-third of the assets of the banking sector, but in the global banking instry, its asset size ranked only No. 138 (1998), the size of the capital located 344 (1997). Former World Bank 1000, the average size of the capital to 1,496,000,000 U.S. dollars, and Russia in the same period the average size of the bank's capital to 390,000,000 U.S. dollars, equivalent to only one-fifth of the former, the difference between a great power. 1998 financial crisis caused by a large number of bank failures, the bank's capital in early 2003 only to return to pre-crisis levels. Asset size in early 2003 to 126,000,000,000 U.S. dollars (based on the same day the Russian Central Bank exchange rate), the proportion of GDP accounted for 35%.

If the Russian banking system's total capital and total assets of the scale with the world's largest three banks (City Group, Bank of America, Mizuho Group) compared, to see the Russian banking system in the world of banking Gap: 2002 In July 1, the Russian commercial banks, the total assets of the equivalent of only three banks of the world's largest asset size of 4%, 11% of the size of the capital. Despite Russia's banking assets account for the proportion of GDP in 2002 reached 35%, but is still low. In other transition economies, many of the indicators is higher: 53 percent for Poland, Lithuania 60%, the Czech Republic is 109 percent (2001). Therefore it that the Russian banking system is far from strong enough, its domestic economic development is bound to be weak.

In the developed market economies, corporate use of bank loans to develop proction is the most commonly used means of financing, banks provide enterprises with the investment in fixed assets and working capital loan balance of the loan-to-GDP ratio is usually at 60% to 100% and 4% to 7%. But in Russia, the banking system's total loan balance of payment account for the proportion of GDP but is much lower. Table:

List of figures show that the Russian banking system on the real economy of the very low support. In recent years, bank loans accounted for the balance of the proportion of GDP on an upward trend, but still a huge gap compared with developed countries. The table also includes figures for indivial banks to provide credit services, that is to say, the Russian banking system to provide business loans account for the proportion of GDP should be less than the figure in the table. Russia's capital markets to provide financing function is still weak, economic

㈢ 中國經濟的英文

Chinese economy。謝謝。

㈣ 關於中國未來經濟發展的英語作文

學反了！中國未來發展用中文寫，美國未來發展用英文寫。不是說樓主的，但是，這種方法叫作見了貓學驢叫的外語學習法，整個兒反了！

㈤ 中國經濟的高速發展 英文翻譯

中國經濟的高速發專展屬
(1) the High speed growth of China's economy

(2) The rapid /swift / fast development of China's economy

㈥ 英文翻譯：過去的三十年見證了中國經濟的迅速發展。

過去的三十年見證了中國經濟的迅速發展英文：The past 30 years have witnessed the rapid development of China's economy.

核心詞彙釋義：

過去：past；former times；history；pass (by)；go over；

三十：thirty；thirtieth

見證：bear witness/testimony；give witness；witness；testimony

中國：China

經濟：economy；income；financial condition；manager (of an actor, a musician, a singer, etc)；economical；thrifty；of instrial or economic value

迅速：rapid；swift；fast；quick；speedy；prompt

發展：develop；expand；grow；burgeon；recruit；admit

(6)中國經濟發展的英文版擴展閱讀：

中華人民共和國成立後，通過有計劃地進行大規模的建設，中國已成為世界上最具有發展潛力的經濟大國之一，人民生活總體上達到小康水平。按預定計劃，到2010年，中國已建立起比較完善的市場經濟體制；到2020年，建立起比較成熟的市場經濟體制。

從1953年到2010年，中國已陸續完成十一個「五年規劃」，並取得舉世矚目的成就，為國民經濟的發展打下了堅實基礎；而1979年以來的改革開放，則使中國經濟得到前所未有的快速增長。進入二十一世紀後，中國經濟繼續保持穩步高速增長。

市場經濟體制已經初步建立，市場在資源配置中起決定性作用，宏觀調控體系日趨完善；以公有制經濟為主體、個體、私營、外資等非公有制經濟共同發展的格局基本形成，經濟增長方式逐步由粗放型向集約型轉變。

參考資料來源：網路-中國經濟

㈦ 中國經濟過去現在和未來的發展 英文版

過去：

先秦 古錢幣

先秦鑄幣，指的是商、周（東周、西周）兩個時期的鑄幣。
商代鑄幣至今發現的主要形式是象形金屬鑄貝，即所謂的「無文金屬貝」。商代金屬貝的型制幾乎完全依照海貝，弧而無文，並且保留了海貝的外形和唇、齒紋式。象形金屬鑄貝流行於西周，直到戰國時期仍有鑄造。與出現於商代的另一種鑄幣形式——金屬斧（其繼承形式為空首布和布錢體系）一樣，金屬貝也有自己的歷史繼承形式，這就是被稱為蟻鼻錢或鬼臉錢的楚貝。象形金屬貝在商代有黃金、青銅和鉛等多種材質。戰國象形貝甚至有銀質。
大約在西周晚期，出現了空首布。金屬貝是按照裝飾消費品海貝的原來形態復制出來的，而空首布第一次不再按照生產性消費品的本來形態來獲得被鑄造的權利，成為了專職的貨幣。
春秋戰國時期鑄幣按照其形制和製造方法的譜系可以分為五個大類：貝幣（從象形貝到較為抽象的蟻鼻錢）、布幣（從象形金屬斧、空首布到各型平首布）、刀幣（從象形的大刀到較為簡約的直刀）、圓錢、楚金。
在春秋戰國時代，錢幣形制和鑄造方法按照由象形到抽象、由不拘一格的多元格局過渡到大一統的制式不斷演變。最後，人們找到了圓錢這種不再依附某個實用物品的鑄幣形式。圓錢的形象意味著「規矩」的「規」所代表的那個抽象的圓形，那個一切有形之物所依據的形象基礎。
外圓內方的先秦半兩最終使六國貨幣歸於一統，實際上未必僅有秦始皇清掃六合的軍力可以依恃，秦半兩本身所發布的造幣形式，就是一個一統天下的形式。

秦·漢·新莽 古錢幣

秦滅六國後，以秦幣一統天下之各幣，從此刀、布、貝等作為獨立的鑄幣形式退出了歷史舞台。秦半兩所開創的方孔圓錢的造幣形式奠定了其後兩千年金屬鑄幣的基本制式。
由於秦錢重而且難用，到了漢代，惠帝、呂後、文帝、景帝等先後鑄行三銖、八銖和四銖等數種重不如其文的減重「半兩」。幣制也屢改屢變。武帝元狩五年（前 118年），在鑄行以「三銖」為名的新錢五年之後，廢"三銖"並正式鑄行「五銖」。五銖錢日益改進並最後定型的內、外廓成為其後鑄錢的標准樣式。而以「五銖」為文的方孔圓錢，經歷朝延鑄，直到隋朝才告終結。鑄行歷史長達 739年，居中國古錢史上同一面文錢幣鑄行年限之最。
西漢前期的鐵半兩、鐵五銖是考古學上迄今所見的最早鐵錢，也是漢初各朝減重政策更為直截了當的一種表現形式--即以低價金屬鑄幣直接貶值。
西漢末年王莽托古改制。錢制屢改屢亂，屢亂屢改。一方面莽錢體制所規定的換算標准，既大大背離了金屬和實物貨幣本身的商品價值由民間所確立起的信用，又無力維持這種換算標准自身所規定的信用；另一方面，莽錢改制的根據是突出錢幣的法定信用本質，但莽錢所啟用的貨幣符號又總是與法定信用背道而馳。貨幣信用一度衰落到極點，人們已經習慣於以布帛粟米來表達經濟交往。董卓無文錢的出現，又一次沉重打擊了貨幣的獨立信用。
終秦漢新莽各朝，自先秦以來確立的貨幣形式的專職化和「貨幣化」進程已成定局。方孔圓錢這一抽象的貨幣符號形式奠定了其後兩千年貨幣符號形式的基礎。

三國·兩晉·南北朝·隋 古錢幣

自從東漢末年錢制廢弛以來，魏、吳、蜀三國分別鑄五銖、直百五銖、太平百錢、定平一百、大泉五百、大泉一千、大泉二千等錢品流通民間，力圖恢復貨幣信用。
兩晉仍沿用流行已久的各種舊幣，但谷帛交易盛行於民間。十六國時代則體現出了依循鑄幣重量而文不受尊重的慣例。在這個政權多元的時代，中國造幣史也面臨著一個制式多元、需要重新尋找統一根據的局面。
先秦以來摒棄某個具體的實用消費品與貨幣效用的聯系，以抽象的實用——即單位重量的金屬效用來定位貨幣效用和信用這一造幣根據，歷經減重和官定大錢的屢次打擊，到十六國時期已日漸動搖。以赤仄五銖的方式或王莽的方式宣布官鑄錢品的價格，到東吳的「大泉五千」已登峰造極。
南朝時仍然是以鑄造粗劣減重幣和低價金屬幣的方式來對抗金屬重量的信用，這可以說是官方將自己所獲得的有限信用濫用為無限信用，以有限信用對抗金屬信用並拒絕以全民公意為最終擔保這一貨幣思想和貨幣政策的直接結果。「永光」、「景和」等錢品的產生，與其說是官方明確自身信用責任的一種表示，毋寧說是官方以單方面意志取代曾經為全民意志擔保的金屬信用的更為直截了當的步驟。
相比之下，北朝似乎比南朝更為看重金屬的權力。以「五銖」為名的多種錢品大體能維持「五銖」所標明的面文重量。「北周三錢」似乎比「景和」等錢品更注重官方信用的嚴肅性，但隨意制訂的折當標准顯然暴露了官方鑄錢自己「防鑄」自己，濫用信用的「私鑄」本質。
隋文帝不得不在開國伊始整頓混亂已久的幣制。官方信用重新轉回金屬信用的軌道。「開皇五銖」是很長時期以來第一批能「重如其文」的「五銖」。但隋煬帝很快破壞了文帝的錢制，開始濫鑄劣錢。隋末錢制甚至敗壞到剪紙割皮為幣的空前局面。

唐·五代十國·宋 古錢幣

唐高祖廢「五銖」，鑄行「開元通寶」，開創了中國古代鑄幣史的又一紀元。從此，中國古代鑄幣史進入以「寶」為名的時代。開元通寶鑄行的意義不僅在於以其錢文和書體開啟了一個時代，也不僅在於其制錢體制為後世樹立了典範，而在於開元通寶是制錢官方明確地以官方擔保的形式公開發布其官方信用的第一例。從此，「徑八分，重二銖四累」等等體制和重量的要求已不再是一個超越於官方信用之上的要求。金屬的重量和成色在此成為確保官方信用的技術手段。官方已不可能逃避金屬重量和成色所要求的信用，而且這個信用正是官方試圖頒布的法定信用本身。
中國古代鑄幣自「開元通寶」開始，進入以年號（「開元通寶」自身並未以年號名錢）和「寶」名錢的時代，同時也進入貨幣信用較為穩定的時代。布帛粟米等與官方賦稅政策有關的物品和金銀仍然是重要的流通物資，甚至也是財富的通用計量單位。但是，法定鑄幣的地位經過漫長的歷史演進，從此變得不可動搖。
五代十國時期，是鑄大錢甚多，並且銅、鐵、鉛錢並用的時期。當五、當十、當百（永安錢甚至用到了「五百」、「一千」）等換算體制在此時期漸成定局。
兩宋繼承銅、鐵制錢並用的五代十國傳統，並極大地發展了鐵錢的鑄造和行用規模。各地有專用銅錢、專用鐵錢和銅鐵並用的分野。金銀地位空前顯要，並且發行了世界上最早的可兌換紙幣。兩宋是中國古代方孔圓錢鑄錢成熟和在形式上日益多樣化的時代。錢文書體在兩宋時期可謂無體不備。行、草、楷等在兩宋以前不入正途的錢文，從此大規模鑄行於世。
兩宋也是鑄錢折算體制空前完善的時期，以往較為隨意的折當體制，在兩宋時期衍成小平、折二、折三、折五、當十、當百等切合流通需要，體系完善的大小錢折當體制。折二、折三、折五等以往不見或難見的折當等級從此成為例行的折當等級流布於歷代鑄錢。

遼·西夏·金·元 古錢幣

遼、西夏、金、元分別是我國古代契丹、黨項、女真、蒙古等族建立的多民族王朝國家。上述四朝的貨幣體系都是高度漢化的貨幣體系。
遼、西夏所鑄圓形方孔錢，寫下了中國古代造幣體系新的一頁。其獨特處在於，繼承了中國古代造幣體系在鑄造方法、形制特徵（方孔圓錢）和以純文字為錢文標志等方面的根本品性，拓展了中國古錢體系在漢文和拼寫文字之外以漢字筆畫為書寫基礎的新的錢文形式。
金、元兩朝以紙鈔為主要流通貨幣。兩朝是中國貨幣史上紙鈔最為盛行的時代。銀制錢幣與紙鈔並用，使官方信用和金屬信用重又陷於二元對立。金代曾禁用鑄錢，力圖以打擊代表公眾信用的金屬信用的方式來樹立官方信用權威。但濫發紙鈔本身才是官方信用的敵人。為了消除濫發紙鈔這一官方信用自我消解的弊端，元代在禁用金銀的同時，確立以白銀為本位的發鈔制度。這樣，鑄錢與紙鈔之間構成所謂「子母相權」關系，以銅錢為信用紙鈔的信用擔保者的貨幣體系已經無可迴避。「至正之寶」等「權鈔」銅錢歷經金、元兩朝醞釀，公然行世，可以說是制錢官方在根本上未獲公眾信用授權並且也不對公眾信用負責的時代，不得不向代表公眾信用的金屬信用做出讓步的一個歷史事件。

明·清·民國 古錢幣

明代初期承襲元制，以「大明寶鈔」行天下。但官方信用不受制於公眾信用的問題仍然懸而未決。明代錢制的演變歷程，清晰地展示了自認為公眾信用代表人的官方信用，與公眾信用的傳統代表形式金屬信用之間，隨王朝盛衰彼此消長的歷史。明初，初登正統的王朝，以受命於天（即傳統的授權形式）的姿態，自信並且據信為公眾信用的合法代表。這個時期是「大明寶鈔」通行天下，金銀受禁，鑄錢閑置的時期。很快，王朝本身受命方式的偽合法性暴露出來，官方信用與公眾信用日漸違忤。金屬信用所代表的公眾信用權力與日俱進，以

之權衡官方信用的體制漸成定勢。

清代發展了明末時已成定局的銀、銅復本位體制。順治八年頒行十年後即遭廢止的紙鈔和後來的大清寶鈔從未獲得過在金、元、明三代一度獲得的那種流通地位。金屬信用與官方專制信用之間經歷數朝的較量，終於以試圖背離「鈔本」專制信用的紙鈔的衰竭而告終結。
清代鑄幣除了天命漢錢、天聰漢錢（清立國前）是老滿文鑄幣，順治以後各朝鑄幣均取漢文面文，滿、漢文背紀局、紀值的制式。王朝後期張之洞在兩廣總督任內首開機器制幣一式。機器制幣早期的格式仍遵方孔圓錢的傳統中國古錢形制和以文字為錢文的傳統。因此，

這部分機制幣仍可視為中國古代錢幣體系的又一創新形式。
清代鑄幣權分屬散步全國的各地方制錢機構。各省可隨時奏准設局鑄錢。原則上各局鑄錢歸各地專用。順治朝曾有集中鑄幣權於中央的政策，但施行四年即遭廢止。直到後來的機制幣時期，才有設立天津造幣總廠（1905年）和歸並製造銅元局廠，建立統一鑄幣體系的政策。
然而，清末建立的統一的機製造幣體系，並未立即消除各省設局鼓鑄這一沿襲二百餘年的傳統。直到民國初年，民國政府和各省仍有中國錢系的作品問世。因此，清末民初的貨幣體系終於只能是中國錢系的各色鑄品、機制中國錢、仿西洋銅、銀元和外國銀洋、官私銀行錢庄鈔票等混雜流通的一個空前龐雜的體系。

現在：

一百元

根據中華人民共和國第268號國務院令，中國人民銀行於1999年10月1日在全國發行第五套（1999年版）人民幣100元券。新版人民幣幣發行後與現行人民幣等值流通，具有相同的貨幣職能。

一、鈔票特徵
主色調為紅色，票幅長155mm、寬77mm。正面主景為毛澤東頭像，左側為橢圓形花卉圖案，票面左上方為中華人民共和國「國徽」圖案，右下方為盲文面額標記。背面主景為「人民大會堂」圖案，左側為人民大會堂內圓柱圖案，票面右上方為「中國人民銀行」漢語拼音字母和蒙、藏、維、壯四種民族文字的「中國人民銀行」字樣和面額。
二、防偽特徵
1、固定人像水印：位於正面左側空白處，迎光透視，可見與主景人像相同、立體感很強的毛澤東頭像水印。
2、紅、藍彩色纖維：在票面的空白處，可看到紙張中有紅色和藍色纖維。
3、磁性微文字安全線：鈔票紙中的安全線，迎光觀察，可見「RMB100」微小文字，儀器檢測有磁性。
4、手工雕刻關像：正面主景毛澤東頭像，採用手工雕刻凹版印刷工藝，形象逼真、傳神，凹凸感強，易於識別。
5、隱形面額數字：正面右上方有一橢圓形圖案，將鈔票置於與眼睛接近平等的位置、面對光源作平面旋轉45度或90度角，即可看到面額「100」字樣。
6、膠印縮微文字：正面上方橢圓形圖案中，多處印有膠印縮微文字，在放大鏡下可看到「RMB」和「RMB100」字樣。
7、光變油墨面額數字：正面左下方「100」字樣，與票面垂直角度觀察為綠色，傾斜一定角度則變為藍色。
8、陰陽互補對印圖案：票面下面左下方和背面右下方均有圓形局部圖案，迎光觀察，正背面圖案重合並組合成一個完整的古錢幣圖案。
9、雕刻凹版印刷：正面主景毛澤東頭像、中國人民銀行行名、盲文及背面主景人民大會堂等均採用雕刻凹版印刷，用手指觸摸有明顯凹、凸感。
10、橫豎雙號碼：正面採用橫豎雙號碼印刷（均為兩位冠字、八位號碼）。橫號碼為黑色，豎號碼為藍色。

五十元

第五套人民幣50元紙幣主色調為綠色，票幅長150mm、寬70mm。正面主景為毛澤東頭像，左側為「中國人民銀行」行名、阿拉伯數字「50」、面額「伍拾圓」字樣和花卉圖案，左上角為中華人民共和國國徽圖案，右下角為盲文面額標記，票面正面印有橫豎雙號碼。背面主景為「布達拉宮」圖案，右上方為「中國人民銀行」漢語拼音字母和蒙、藏、維、壯四種民族文字的「中國人民銀行」字樣和面額

二十元

第五套人民幣紙20元主要特徵主色調為棕色，票幅長145mm、寬70mm。票面正面主景為毛澤東頭像，左側為「中國人民銀行」行名、阿拉伯數字「20」、面額「貳拾圓」和花卉圖案，票面左上方為中華人民共和國「國徽」圖案，左下方印有雙色橫號碼，右下方為盲文面額標記。票面背面主景為「桂林山水」圖案，票面右上方為「中國人民銀行」漢語拼音字母和蒙、藏、維、壯4種民族文字的「中國人民銀行」字樣和面額。
第五套人民幣20元的防偽措施有：固定花繪水印、紅藍彩色纖維、安全線、手工雕刻頭像、隱形面額數字、膠印微縮文字、雕刻凹版印刷和雙色橫號碼等8項防偽措施。

十元

第五套人民幣10元紙幣主色調為藍黑色，票幅長140mm、寬70mm。正面主景為毛澤東頭像，左側為「中國人民銀行」行名、阿拉伯數字「10」、面額「拾圓」字樣和花卉圖案，左上角為中華人民共和國國徽圖案，左下角印有雙色橫號碼，右下方為盲文面額標記。背面主景為「長江三峽」圖案，右上方為「中國人民銀行」漢語拼音字母和蒙、藏、維、壯四種民族文字的「中國人民銀行」字樣和面額。

一元

全新的第五套人民幣1元紙幣正式「面世」。新版1元紙幣正面主景是毛澤東頭像，正背面有6項防偽特徵。

此次發行的新版1元紙幣，票幅尺寸長130毫米、寬63毫米，主色調為橄欖綠。具有6項防偽技術，防偽技術達到國際先進水平。有關人士稱，此版1元紙幣手感強烈，「閉著眼睛就能感覺到」。

據了解，中國人民銀行自1999年10月1日起陸續發行第五套人民幣，包括100元、50元、20元、10元、5元、1元、5角和1角8種面額，目前大多已在市場上流通。在第五套人民幣中，1元面額的只有硬幣，而此次發行的1元紙幣是對以前發行1元硬幣的「補充」。第五套人民幣與現行人民幣的比率為1比1。第五套人民幣發行後，與現行人民幣混合流通，具有同等的貨幣職能。

由於我國近年來經濟持續增長，第五套人民幣發行以後，1元人民幣的流通數量遠遠無法滿足經濟領域的需要，再加上1元硬幣的生產過程較長，目前全國部分地區已經出現1元人民幣告急的情況，所以要發行1元紙幣。

記者今天上午走訪了幾個銀行網點，並未發現新版1元紙幣的蹤跡。

防偽特徵

★固定花卉水印：位於正面左側空白處，迎光透視，可以看到立體感很強的蘭花水印。

★手工雕刻頭像：正面主景毛澤東頭像，採用手工雕刻凹版印刷工藝，形象逼真、傳神，凹凸感強，易於識別。

★隱形面額數字：正面右上方有一裝飾圖案，將票面置於與眼睛接近平行的位置，面對光源作上下傾斜晃動，可看到面額數字「1」字樣。

★膠印縮微文字：背面下方膠印圖案中，印有縮微文字「人民幣」和「RMB1」字樣。

★雕刻凹版印刷：正面主景毛澤東頭像、「中國人民銀行」行名、面額數字、盲文面額標記等均採用雕刻凹版印刷，用手指觸摸有明顯凹凸感。

★ 雙色橫號碼：正面印有雙色橫號碼，左側部分為紅色，右側部分為黑色。

㈧ 我急需有關中國經濟發展的英文資料！！！

RMB exchange rate reform--decided out of China's own need
When the national economic statistics of the first half of this year were just released on July 20, people were immersed in analysis and judgment of the economic situation.

At 7:00 on the evening of July 21, after only one day, the People's Bank of China (PBOC), the central bank, announced a world-shaking news: With approval from the State Council, from July 21, China began to institute a regulated, managed floating exchange rate regime based on market supply and demand and in reference to a basket of currencies.

A reform independently decided out of own need
The reform is an important policy decision made out of the actual needs of China's reform and development, rather than under certain international pressure.

As is emphasized by Zhou Xiaochuan, governor of the central bank: "This represents a kind of self-decision and is the need of China's march to a socialist market economy and optimization of resources allocation and the need for reform and long-term stable development, rather than a result gained after communication and consultation with other countries."

In 1994, China reformed its double-track exchange rate system and introced the unification of exchange rates. After the unification, China instituted a managed floating exchange rate regime based on market supply and demand.

In plain words, this exchange rate system means: Selling or buying foreign exchange by enterprises and indivials has to be carried out through designated foreign exchange banks; these designated banks, in turn, enter the inter-bank foreign exchange market, or sell their surplus foreign exchange to other banks to gain the people's currency, or use the RMB to buy foreign currencies from other banks to make up the shortage of foreign exchange; this buying and selling, supply and demand give rise to price parity between the RMB and foreign currencies, or called the RMB exchange rate; meanwhile, the central bank sets up a certain floating limit to the exchange rate, foreign exchange is bought up when supply exceeds demand, sold out when it is in short supply. Doing so aims to maintain a basic stability of the RMB exchange rate through such a regulating method.

Before 1997, RMB exchange rate was stable with a bit rise, and for this reason, people at home and abroad had growing confidence in the RMB. But thereafter the Asian financial crisis broke out, in order to prevent an alternate depreciation of currencies in Asian neighbors and a resultant deepening of the crisis, China, as a large responsible country, promised not to devalue the RMB and took the initiative to narrow the floating band of exchange rate, but the goal for instituting a managed floating exchange rate regime remained unchanged.

We should say that the managed floating exchange rate system based on market supply and demand conforms to China's national conditions for it adapts to the stage of China's economic development, the level of financial supervision and administration and enterprises' sustainability. However, along with the evolvement of the situation, the necessity of perfecting the RMB exchange rate determination mechanism has revealed itself with each passing day. In other words, what is to be changed in the RMB exchange rate reform is not the RMB exchange rate system, still less permission of a revaluation, but rather it is designed to perfect the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism.

Improving the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism is the inherent requirement for the establishment of a sound socialist market economy system, as well as an important content of deepening reform to the economic-financial system and strengthening the macro-control system.

In recent years, along with the rapid growth of China's exports and foreign investments, correspondingly, in the balance of payments statement, it is shown a "double surpluses" of the current account and the capital account; in the inter-bank foreign exchange market, it is manifested as a continuous stream of foreign exchange and that the supply exceeds the demand.

In order to stabilize the RMB exchange rate, the central bank cannot but passively purchase a huge amount of foreign exchange, correspondingly, it will provide a huge supply of RMB, consequently increasing the monetary base.

Statistics show that the basic currency supplied in such a way has accounted for 90 percent of the total of basic currency. The independence of the monetary policy is subject to serious challenge. The too rapid growth of money supply would give rise to such problems as investment expansion, inflationary pressure and assets bubble.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism and allowing it to be more elastic make it possible to give better play to the basic role of the market in the allocation of resources; this helps improve the initiative and efficiency of financial regulation and control and thus helps strengthen and improve macro regulation and control.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism is concive to implementation of the strategy for the sustainable development of the economy based mainly on domestic demand and to optimization of resources allocation.

Experts put it frankly that if the original exchange rate formation mechanism is stuck to for a long time, it will likely affect improvement of the economic structure.

Firstly, it will encourage the uneven development between foreign-related departments and domestic departments.

Secondly, it will affect the coordinated proportion among the three major instries (primary, secondary and tertiary).

Thirdly, it will hamper the normal transfer of instry from coastal areas to the inland. Inordinate stability of the exchange rate makes it possible for rough machining labor-intensive proction to exist in coastal areas and to lack driving force and pressure to shift toward central and western regions.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism and properly increasing the elasticity of exchange rate will increase the uncertainty of risk capital flows gains, which helps curb massive unilateral flows of capital, guard against and obviate financial risks and maintain financial stability.

Excessive rigidity of exchange rate reces the exchange rate risks of venture capital flows, is likely to cause massive in and out of venture capital and to bring impacts on economic development and financial stability. The Mexican financial crisis in 1994 and the Asian financial crisis in 1997 were both directly associated with this.

Regarding this, Zhou Xiaochuan has a very vivid metaphor. He said: "A fixed exchange rate is like a shield in the hand when fighting, however you attack me, I will remain unmoved; if I fail to hold on, the impact will cause influence. A floating exchange rate is like a foam-rubber cushion, if you want to fight your way in, I'll react softly, ok, you've come in, but I won't let you hit me; when you want to quit, I'll give you a pinch and let you go only after you have taken a layer of your skin off."

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism facilitates the development of the foreign economy. This move helps spur the enterprise to strengthen technical innovation, management innovation and the creation of a brand name and to strengthen marketing, after-sale service, thereby fundamentally enhance the enterprise's competitiveness; it also helps maintain a basic balance between import and export and improve trading conditions.

Reform is a must and is imminent.

Experts put it frankly that if RMB exchange rate reform is delayed indefinitely, it will bring about three major risks.

First is the risk of domestic economic bubble. If the monetary base grows too big, it will cause inflation when flowing to the commodity market; when the money flows to the capital market, it will lead to a bubble of assets. The emergence of economic bubble will aggravate the frailty of the financial system and will rece the capability to resist monetary impacts.

Second is the risk of weakening the independence of monetary policy. The principle of the "Mundell ternary paradox" tells us that of the three things: full capital opening, independent monetary policy and stable exchange rate, a country can only choose two, and cannot have all three.

Third is the risk of a reversion of the situation. If the exchange rate must be reformed, then an active reform is better than a passive one; reform carried out under revaluation pressure is better than reform carried out under devaluation pressure.

Internationally, since the 1990s, Poland has experienced the evolution from a managed floating exchange rate system under which its currency was pegged to one, or a basket of currencies to a free floating exchange rate system. Because its exchange rate system was actively adjusted in light of changes in domestic and foreign situations, therefore it could avoid to the maximum possible economic-social upheavals.

While Thailand had, before 1997, all along pegged its currency to the US dollar without changing its exchange rate system, as a result, the country was compelled to drastically devalue its currency ring the Asian financial crisis, thus resulting in the outbreak of the monetary and financial crisis.

The opportunity for exchange rate reform often appears only in a twinkle. When opportunity comes, it is imperative to seize it!

To put it in a nutshell, RMB exchange rate reform is by no means "you want me to reform it", but rather it is "I want to change it"!

Part 1. Part 2. Part 3. Part 4. Part 5. Part 6. Part 7. Part 8.

㈨ 英語作文:中國近期的經濟發展變化

寫環保與經濟發展好
如Study the two pictures above carefully and write an essay entitled 「On the Relationship between Environment and Economy」 In the essay, you should (1) describe the pictures and interpret their meaning (2) give your opinion with some proof (3) give your conclusion.You should write about 200
環保與經濟發展_英語作文作者：佚名 來源：不詳 發布時間：2007-11-1 3:07:35 發布人：lsy1chj2wdh3
Study the two pictures above carefully and write an essay entitled 「On the Relationship between Environment and Economy」 In the essay, you should (1) describe the pictures and interpret their meaning (2) give your opinion with some proof (3) give your conclusion.You should write about 200

words neatly on ANSWER SHEET 2. (20 points)

On the Relationship between Environment and Economy

The two pictures above are both about the relationship between the environment and the economic development. In the first picture, GDP is on the rise while the environment is drastically polluted. In the second picture, economic efficiency progresses with environmental protection. It』s easy to get the conclusion that development according to the second picture is more reasonable than that in the first one.

In the early development of socialism, our country didn』t pay much attention to the issue of environmental protection and savored the bitterness. Now, the government has taken many measures and is implementing the strategy of 「sustainable development」. One aspect of the strategy is to develop the economy and take measures to protect the environment at the same time. In this way, we can develop our country in a sustainable manner and our offspring can have enough resources to develop society. If we don』t put much emphasis on the environment issue and excavate the natural resources blindly, our country will become a barren land sooner or later.

In a word, sustainable development is a reasonable strategy which should be implemented for a long time. The nature is providing us with plentiful resources generously, but it may punish us severely if we don』t care her.