中国经济发展的英文版

㈠ 中国经济的发展英语范文

RMB exchange rate reform--decided out of China's own need
When the national economic statistics of the first half of this year were just released on July 20, people were immersed in analysis and judgment of the economic situation.

At 7:00 on the evening of July 21, after only one day, the People's Bank of China (PBOC), the central bank, announced a world-shaking news: With approval from the State Council, from July 21, China began to institute a regulated, managed floating exchange rate regime based on market supply and demand and in reference to a basket of currencies.

A reform independently decided out of own need
The reform is an important policy decision made out of the actual needs of China's reform and development, rather than under certain international pressure.

As is emphasized by Zhou Xiaochuan, governor of the central bank: "This represents a kind of self-decision and is the need of China's march to a socialist market economy and optimization of resources allocation and the need for reform and long-term stable development, rather than a result gained after communication and consultation with other countries."

In 1994, China reformed its double-track exchange rate system and introced the unification of exchange rates. After the unification, China instituted a managed floating exchange rate regime based on market supply and demand.

In plain words, this exchange rate system means: Selling or buying foreign exchange by enterprises and indivials has to be carried out through designated foreign exchange banks; these designated banks, in turn, enter the inter-bank foreign exchange market, or sell their surplus foreign exchange to other banks to gain the people's currency, or use the RMB to buy foreign currencies from other banks to make up the shortage of foreign exchange; this buying and selling, supply and demand give rise to price parity between the RMB and foreign currencies, or called the RMB exchange rate; meanwhile, the central bank sets up a certain floating limit to the exchange rate, foreign exchange is bought up when supply exceeds demand, sold out when it is in short supply. Doing so aims to maintain a basic stability of the RMB exchange rate through such a regulating method.

Before 1997, RMB exchange rate was stable with a bit rise, and for this reason, people at home and abroad had growing confidence in the RMB. But thereafter the Asian financial crisis broke out, in order to prevent an alternate depreciation of currencies in Asian neighbors and a resultant deepening of the crisis, China, as a large responsible country, promised not to devalue the RMB and took the initiative to narrow the floating band of exchange rate, but the goal for instituting a managed floating exchange rate regime remained unchanged.

We should say that the managed floating exchange rate system based on market supply and demand conforms to China's national conditions for it adapts to the stage of China's economic development, the level of financial supervision and administration and enterprises' sustainability. However, along with the evolvement of the situation, the necessity of perfecting the RMB exchange rate determination mechanism has revealed itself with each passing day. In other words, what is to be changed in the RMB exchange rate reform is not the RMB exchange rate system, still less permission of a revaluation, but rather it is designed to perfect the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism.

Improving the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism is the inherent requirement for the establishment of a sound socialist market economy system, as well as an important content of deepening reform to the economic-financial system and strengthening the macro-control system.

In recent years, along with the rapid growth of China's exports and foreign investments, correspondingly, in the balance of payments statement, it is shown a "double surpluses" of the current account and the capital account; in the inter-bank foreign exchange market, it is manifested as a continuous stream of foreign exchange and that the supply exceeds the demand.

In order to stabilize the RMB exchange rate, the central bank cannot but passively purchase a huge amount of foreign exchange, correspondingly, it will provide a huge supply of RMB, consequently increasing the monetary base.

Statistics show that the basic currency supplied in such a way has accounted for 90 percent of the total of basic currency. The independence of the monetary policy is subject to serious challenge. The too rapid growth of money supply would give rise to such problems as investment expansion, inflationary pressure and assets bubble.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism and allowing it to be more elastic make it possible to give better play to the basic role of the market in the allocation of resources; this helps improve the initiative and efficiency of financial regulation and control and thus helps strengthen and improve macro regulation and control.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism is concive to implementation of the strategy for the sustainable development of the economy based mainly on domestic demand and to optimization of resources allocation.

Experts put it frankly that if the original exchange rate formation mechanism is stuck to for a long time, it will likely affect improvement of the economic structure.

Firstly, it will encourage the uneven development between foreign-related departments and domestic departments.

Secondly, it will affect the coordinated proportion among the three major instries (primary, secondary and tertiary).

Thirdly, it will hamper the normal transfer of instry from coastal areas to the inland. Inordinate stability of the exchange rate makes it possible for rough machining labor-intensive proction to exist in coastal areas and to lack driving force and pressure to shift toward central and western regions.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism and properly increasing the elasticity of exchange rate will increase the uncertainty of risk capital flows gains, which helps curb massive unilateral flows of capital, guard against and obviate financial risks and maintain financial stability.

Excessive rigidity of exchange rate reces the exchange rate risks of venture capital flows, is likely to cause massive in and out of venture capital and to bring impacts on economic development and financial stability. The Mexican financial crisis in 1994 and the Asian financial crisis in 1997 were both directly associated with this.

Regarding this, Zhou Xiaochuan has a very vivid metaphor. He said: "A fixed exchange rate is like a shield in the hand when fighting, however you attack me, I will remain unmoved; if I fail to hold on, the impact will cause influence. A floating exchange rate is like a foam-rubber cushion, if you want to fight your way in, I'll react softly, ok, you've come in, but I won't let you hit me; when you want to quit, I'll give you a pinch and let you go only after you have taken a layer of your skin off."

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism facilitates the development of the foreign economy. This move helps spur the enterprise to strengthen technical innovation, management innovation and the creation of a brand name and to strengthen marketing, after-sale service, thereby fundamentally enhance the enterprise's competitiveness; it also helps maintain a basic balance between import and export and improve trading conditions.

Reform is a must and is imminent.

Experts put it frankly that if RMB exchange rate reform is delayed indefinitely, it will bring about three major risks.

First is the risk of domestic economic bubble. If the monetary base grows too big, it will cause inflation when flowing to the commodity market; when the money flows to the capital market, it will lead to a bubble of assets. The emergence of economic bubble will aggravate the frailty of the financial system and will rece the capability to resist monetary impacts.

Second is the risk of weakening the independence of monetary policy. The principle of the "Mundell ternary paradox" tells us that of the three things: full capital opening, independent monetary policy and stable exchange rate, a country can only choose two, and cannot have all three.

Third is the risk of a reversion of the situation. If the exchange rate must be reformed, then an active reform is better than a passive one; reform carried out under revaluation pressure is better than reform carried out under devaluation pressure.

Internationally, since the 1990s, Poland has experienced the evolution from a managed floating exchange rate system under which its currency was pegged to one, or a basket of currencies to a free floating exchange rate system. Because its exchange rate system was actively adjusted in light of changes in domestic and foreign situations, therefore it could avoid to the maximum possible economic-social upheavals.

While Thailand had, before 1997, all along pegged its currency to the US dollar without changing its exchange rate system, as a result, the country was compelled to drastically devalue its currency ring the Asian financial crisis, thus resulting in the outbreak of the monetary and financial crisis.

The opportunity for exchange rate reform often appears only in a twinkle. When opportunity comes, it is imperative to seize it!

To put it in a nutshell, RMB exchange rate reform is by no means "you want me to reform it", but rather it is "I want to change it"!

Part 1. Part 2. Part 3. Part 4. Part 5. Part 6. Part 7. Part 8.

参考资料：People's Daily Online --- http://english.people.com.cn/

㈡ 为什么中国应该优先发展经济英文版

we all know, in any process of economic restructuring, financial institutions and financial systems set up arrangements are of the utmost importance. Many studies confirm the results of the financial system in economic growth an important role. For countries with economies in transition, looking for an appropriate model of the financial system will face in different countries in the institutional arrangements of the great differences. But one thing is common, that is, they have a huge banking system, financial reform and liberalization did not exist before the capital market. Russia's capital markets is accompanied by business arising from the privatization process, the situation is the small size of the capital markets, intermediaries are not fully developed, can not complete the country's economic restructuring and promote economic development functions. As a result, the banking system to play a role to a large extent on the impact of the decision and even economic development.

The results of financial liberalization: the secondary banking system

Russia's financial liberalization important is to break the former Soviet Union to implement a single banking system, the establishment of the secondary banking system. This process is completed in two phases.

The first phase began in 1987, mainly to the original restructuring of the Soviet Union National Bank, the establishment of a new banking system. It consists of the Soviet Union National Bank and five specialized banks: the Bank of Foreign Economic, Instrial Construction Bank, Bank of agro-instrial, residential and community development banks, savings banks, such as the Soviet Union. This is a clear division of the six banks, carry out their ties. In addition to the national banking system, the beginning of the formation of a number of joint-stock commercial banks and cooperative banking system has shown characteristics of diversification. However, at the time of the Soviet Union from all walks of life on the stage of the reform did not give a positive evaluation that banking reform is to change the bank's presence in the form of its essence has not changed, the reform is unsuccessful because of lack of the necessary precondition for economic: No To overcome the economic growth rate of decline in proction efficiency has not improved, and the financial situation continued to deteriorate, budget deficits have to rely on loans to make up for. Under such conditions, the banking reform is not possible to succeed.

The second phase of banking reform in December 1990 published the "Soviet Union National Bank Act" and "Law on Banks and Banking Activities", and these laws are implemented at the same time, "the Central Bank of Russian Federation" and "Bank of Russian Federation And the activities of the Bank Act. " Legal recognition of the Bank is an independent corporate body, is an independent economic entity. Of the Central Bank and commercial banks also made a distinction between the functions. However, e to collapse of the Soviet Union and other reasons, these two laws in 1995 until after the real implementation. The second phase of the main features of the reform is to continue to achieve decentralization of the banking system to the instrial sector in the form of the establishment of China Construction Bank, Bank of agro-instrial and residential community development banks have been transformed into an independent or regional commercial banks. From the form of ownership, commercial banks are the most widely adopted by the joint-stock system. According to the Central Bank of Russia, from April 1996 onwards, the new Russian commercial banks are required to register 200 million ECU's own capital, in July 1998 after this amount increased to 5,000,000 European Currency Unit. Banking reform, the number of Russian commercial banks grew quickly. In early 1989, when only 43 commercial banks, early in 1990 to 224, early in 1991 has reached 1357 and early 1995 are 2486 are eligible to engage in banking business of commercial banks, the branches up to 5460. As the economy continues to slide, in 1995 after the closure of a large number of commercial banks so that commercial banks began to rece the number. To the 1998 financial crisis, a total of 1697 credit organizations (including commercial banks), the branch 8050. To January 2003, the Russian credit organizations to 1330, 1279 commercial banks, non-bank credit institutions 51.

In order to create conditions to attract foreign investment, Russia opened the door to the banking sector, foreign banks began to enter Russia. They were involved in a range of domestic banks with little or no difference. January 2003 belong to the 100% foreign investment capital of 29 banks, more than 50% foreign equity participation of 10 banks and credit institutions of foreign equity participation of a total of 127. Russia's economy in their role in the continued strengthening.

In short, from the beginning of 1987 the bank reform, so that the Russian banking system is a fundamental change: a variety of economic entities have received a start-up banks; the establishment of a secondary banking system, the Central Bank of Russia focus on the currency, the secondary Bank to commercial banks; banking operations into the orbit of the law, promulgated in December 1990 of the legal norms of the Central Bank and commercial banks act; bank shares to realize capital, and diverse forms of ownership to the establishment of commercial banks. At the same time, the banking instry and the real economy in the mutual penetration to the financial instry in recent years, the most typical of the Group; the realization of the commercial banking, commercial banking business aims to make a profit. To this end, the commercial banking business to a comprehensive, all-round development.

The banking system and real economy growth - total amount and structure of the analysis point of view

Russia's economic transition process, the decline in investment in the real economy has become the greatest obstacle to economic recovery. In the 1991-1998 period of reform, investment in the real economy declined by 76%. Capital formation from the point of view, declining investment is an important reason is that the banking system to the real economy can not provide adequate sources of funding. Since the 1998 crisis, the Russian economic development and stable momentum, the proction sector growth to control inflation, the ruble exchange rate stability, increase people's income. The last 3 years, Russian GDP increased by 20% over the same period grew by only 9% of the developed countries. However, all of which was mainly e to the use of natural resources. In the long term, low fixed capital investment, machinery and equipment, and so will the aging of the Russian role in impeding economic growth. It is clear that sustained economic growth to a large extent dependent on a well-developed banking system. But in the past and the present situation of the Russian banking system can ill afford the economic development of long-term stability needed financial support.

According to the British "Banker" magazine in 1998 for the 1000 World Bank by asset size and capital position of the Russian commercial banks are lagging behind. The inclusion of the world's pre-1000 Russian silver
Only 12, most of them belonging to foreign equity participation of banks, accounting for the total number of Russian commercial banks less than 1%. Russia's state-owned Bank of Russia's largest savings bank, the concentrate in the domestic one-third of the assets of the banking sector, but in the global banking instry, its asset size ranked only No. 138 (1998), the size of the capital located 344 (1997). Former World Bank 1000, the average size of the capital to 1,496,000,000 U.S. dollars, and Russia in the same period the average size of the bank's capital to 390,000,000 U.S. dollars, equivalent to only one-fifth of the former, the difference between a great power. 1998 financial crisis caused by a large number of bank failures, the bank's capital in early 2003 only to return to pre-crisis levels. Asset size in early 2003 to 126,000,000,000 U.S. dollars (based on the same day the Russian Central Bank exchange rate), the proportion of GDP accounted for 35%.

If the Russian banking system's total capital and total assets of the scale with the world's largest three banks (City Group, Bank of America, Mizuho Group) compared, to see the Russian banking system in the world of banking Gap: 2002 In July 1, the Russian commercial banks, the total assets of the equivalent of only three banks of the world's largest asset size of 4%, 11% of the size of the capital. Despite Russia's banking assets account for the proportion of GDP in 2002 reached 35%, but is still low. In other transition economies, many of the indicators is higher: 53 percent for Poland, Lithuania 60%, the Czech Republic is 109 percent (2001). Therefore it that the Russian banking system is far from strong enough, its domestic economic development is bound to be weak.

In the developed market economies, corporate use of bank loans to develop proction is the most commonly used means of financing, banks provide enterprises with the investment in fixed assets and working capital loan balance of the loan-to-GDP ratio is usually at 60% to 100% and 4% to 7%. But in Russia, the banking system's total loan balance of payment account for the proportion of GDP but is much lower. Table:

List of figures show that the Russian banking system on the real economy of the very low support. In recent years, bank loans accounted for the balance of the proportion of GDP on an upward trend, but still a huge gap compared with developed countries. The table also includes figures for indivial banks to provide credit services, that is to say, the Russian banking system to provide business loans account for the proportion of GDP should be less than the figure in the table. Russia's capital markets to provide financing function is still weak, economic

㈢ 中国经济的英文

Chinese economy。谢谢。

㈣ 关于中国未来经济发展的英语作文

学反了！中国未来发展用中文写，美国未来发展用英文写。不是说楼主的，但是，这种方法叫作见了猫学驴叫的外语学习法，整个儿反了！

㈤ 中国经济的高速发展 英文翻译

中国经济的高速发专展属
(1) the High speed growth of China's economy

(2) The rapid /swift / fast development of China's economy

㈥ 英文翻译：过去的三十年见证了中国经济的迅速发展。

过去的三十年见证了中国经济的迅速发展英文：The past 30 years have witnessed the rapid development of China's economy.

核心词汇释义：

过去：past；former times；history；pass (by)；go over；

三十：thirty；thirtieth

见证：bear witness/testimony；give witness；witness；testimony

中国：China

经济：economy；income；financial condition；manager (of an actor, a musician, a singer, etc)；economical；thrifty；of instrial or economic value

迅速：rapid；swift；fast；quick；speedy；prompt

发展：develop；expand；grow；burgeon；recruit；admit

(6)中国经济发展的英文版扩展阅读：

中华人民共和国成立后，通过有计划地进行大规模的建设，中国已成为世界上最具有发展潜力的经济大国之一，人民生活总体上达到小康水平。按预定计划，到2010年，中国已建立起比较完善的市场经济体制；到2020年，建立起比较成熟的市场经济体制。

从1953年到2010年，中国已陆续完成十一个“五年规划”，并取得举世瞩目的成就，为国民经济的发展打下了坚实基础；而1979年以来的改革开放，则使中国经济得到前所未有的快速增长。进入二十一世纪后，中国经济继续保持稳步高速增长。

市场经济体制已经初步建立，市场在资源配置中起决定性作用，宏观调控体系日趋完善；以公有制经济为主体、个体、私营、外资等非公有制经济共同发展的格局基本形成，经济增长方式逐步由粗放型向集约型转变。

参考资料来源：网络-中国经济

㈦ 中国经济过去现在和未来的发展 英文版

过去：

先秦 古钱币

先秦铸币，指的是商、周（东周、西周）两个时期的铸币。
商代铸币至今发现的主要形式是象形金属铸贝，即所谓的“无文金属贝”。商代金属贝的型制几乎完全依照海贝，弧而无文，并且保留了海贝的外形和唇、齿纹式。象形金属铸贝流行于西周，直到战国时期仍有铸造。与出现于商代的另一种铸币形式——金属斧（其继承形式为空首布和布钱体系）一样，金属贝也有自己的历史继承形式，这就是被称为蚁鼻钱或鬼脸钱的楚贝。象形金属贝在商代有黄金、青铜和铅等多种材质。战国象形贝甚至有银质。
大约在西周晚期，出现了空首布。金属贝是按照装饰消费品海贝的原来形态复制出来的，而空首布第一次不再按照生产性消费品的本来形态来获得被铸造的权利，成为了专职的货币。
春秋战国时期铸币按照其形制和制造方法的谱系可以分为五个大类：贝币（从象形贝到较为抽象的蚁鼻钱）、布币（从象形金属斧、空首布到各型平首布）、刀币（从象形的大刀到较为简约的直刀）、圆钱、楚金。
在春秋战国时代，钱币形制和铸造方法按照由象形到抽象、由不拘一格的多元格局过渡到大一统的制式不断演变。最后，人们找到了圆钱这种不再依附某个实用物品的铸币形式。圆钱的形象意味着“规矩”的“规”所代表的那个抽象的圆形，那个一切有形之物所依据的形象基础。
外圆内方的先秦半两最终使六国货币归于一统，实际上未必仅有秦始皇清扫六合的军力可以依恃，秦半两本身所发布的造币形式，就是一个一统天下的形式。

秦·汉·新莽 古钱币

秦灭六国后，以秦币一统天下之各币，从此刀、布、贝等作为独立的铸币形式退出了历史舞台。秦半两所开创的方孔圆钱的造币形式奠定了其后两千年金属铸币的基本制式。
由于秦钱重而且难用，到了汉代，惠帝、吕后、文帝、景帝等先后铸行三铢、八铢和四铢等数种重不如其文的减重“半两”。币制也屡改屡变。武帝元狩五年（前 118年），在铸行以“三铢”为名的新钱五年之后，废"三铢"并正式铸行“五铢”。五铢钱日益改进并最后定型的内、外廓成为其后铸钱的标准样式。而以“五铢”为文的方孔圆钱，经历朝延铸，直到隋朝才告终结。铸行历史长达 739年，居中国古钱史上同一面文钱币铸行年限之最。
西汉前期的铁半两、铁五铢是考古学上迄今所见的最早铁钱，也是汉初各朝减重政策更为直截了当的一种表现形式--即以低价金属铸币直接贬值。
西汉末年王莽托古改制。钱制屡改屡乱，屡乱屡改。一方面莽钱体制所规定的换算标准，既大大背离了金属和实物货币本身的商品价值由民间所确立起的信用，又无力维持这种换算标准自身所规定的信用；另一方面，莽钱改制的根据是突出钱币的法定信用本质，但莽钱所启用的货币符号又总是与法定信用背道而驰。货币信用一度衰落到极点，人们已经习惯于以布帛粟米来表达经济交往。董卓无文钱的出现，又一次沉重打击了货币的独立信用。
终秦汉新莽各朝，自先秦以来确立的货币形式的专职化和“货币化”进程已成定局。方孔圆钱这一抽象的货币符号形式奠定了其后两千年货币符号形式的基础。

三国·两晋·南北朝·隋 古钱币

自从东汉末年钱制废弛以来，魏、吴、蜀三国分别铸五铢、直百五铢、太平百钱、定平一百、大泉五百、大泉一千、大泉二千等钱品流通民间，力图恢复货币信用。
两晋仍沿用流行已久的各种旧币，但谷帛交易盛行于民间。十六国时代则体现出了依循铸币重量而文不受尊重的惯例。在这个政权多元的时代，中国造币史也面临着一个制式多元、需要重新寻找统一根据的局面。
先秦以来摒弃某个具体的实用消费品与货币效用的联系，以抽象的实用——即单位重量的金属效用来定位货币效用和信用这一造币根据，历经减重和官定大钱的屡次打击，到十六国时期已日渐动摇。以赤仄五铢的方式或王莽的方式宣布官铸钱品的价格，到东吴的“大泉五千”已登峰造极。
南朝时仍然是以铸造粗劣减重币和低价金属币的方式来对抗金属重量的信用，这可以说是官方将自己所获得的有限信用滥用为无限信用，以有限信用对抗金属信用并拒绝以全民公意为最终担保这一货币思想和货币政策的直接结果。“永光”、“景和”等钱品的产生，与其说是官方明确自身信用责任的一种表示，毋宁说是官方以单方面意志取代曾经为全民意志担保的金属信用的更为直截了当的步骤。
相比之下，北朝似乎比南朝更为看重金属的权力。以“五铢”为名的多种钱品大体能维持“五铢”所标明的面文重量。“北周三钱”似乎比“景和”等钱品更注重官方信用的严肃性，但随意制订的折当标准显然暴露了官方铸钱自己“防铸”自己，滥用信用的“私铸”本质。
隋文帝不得不在开国伊始整顿混乱已久的币制。官方信用重新转回金属信用的轨道。“开皇五铢”是很长时期以来第一批能“重如其文”的“五铢”。但隋炀帝很快破坏了文帝的钱制，开始滥铸劣钱。隋末钱制甚至败坏到剪纸割皮为币的空前局面。

唐·五代十国·宋 古钱币

唐高祖废“五铢”，铸行“开元通宝”，开创了中国古代铸币史的又一纪元。从此，中国古代铸币史进入以“宝”为名的时代。开元通宝铸行的意义不仅在于以其钱文和书体开启了一个时代，也不仅在于其制钱体制为后世树立了典范，而在于开元通宝是制钱官方明确地以官方担保的形式公开发布其官方信用的第一例。从此，“径八分，重二铢四累”等等体制和重量的要求已不再是一个超越于官方信用之上的要求。金属的重量和成色在此成为确保官方信用的技术手段。官方已不可能逃避金属重量和成色所要求的信用，而且这个信用正是官方试图颁布的法定信用本身。
中国古代铸币自“开元通宝”开始，进入以年号（“开元通宝”自身并未以年号名钱）和“宝”名钱的时代，同时也进入货币信用较为稳定的时代。布帛粟米等与官方赋税政策有关的物品和金银仍然是重要的流通物资，甚至也是财富的通用计量单位。但是，法定铸币的地位经过漫长的历史演进，从此变得不可动摇。
五代十国时期，是铸大钱甚多，并且铜、铁、铅钱并用的时期。当五、当十、当百（永安钱甚至用到了“五百”、“一千”）等换算体制在此时期渐成定局。
两宋继承铜、铁制钱并用的五代十国传统，并极大地发展了铁钱的铸造和行用规模。各地有专用铜钱、专用铁钱和铜铁并用的分野。金银地位空前显要，并且发行了世界上最早的可兑换纸币。两宋是中国古代方孔圆钱铸钱成熟和在形式上日益多样化的时代。钱文书体在两宋时期可谓无体不备。行、草、楷等在两宋以前不入正途的钱文，从此大规模铸行于世。
两宋也是铸钱折算体制空前完善的时期，以往较为随意的折当体制，在两宋时期衍成小平、折二、折三、折五、当十、当百等切合流通需要，体系完善的大小钱折当体制。折二、折三、折五等以往不见或难见的折当等级从此成为例行的折当等级流布于历代铸钱。

辽·西夏·金·元 古钱币

辽、西夏、金、元分别是我国古代契丹、党项、女真、蒙古等族建立的多民族王朝国家。上述四朝的货币体系都是高度汉化的货币体系。
辽、西夏所铸圆形方孔钱，写下了中国古代造币体系新的一页。其独特处在于，继承了中国古代造币体系在铸造方法、形制特征（方孔圆钱）和以纯文字为钱文标志等方面的根本品性，拓展了中国古钱体系在汉文和拼写文字之外以汉字笔画为书写基础的新的钱文形式。
金、元两朝以纸钞为主要流通货币。两朝是中国货币史上纸钞最为盛行的时代。银制钱币与纸钞并用，使官方信用和金属信用重又陷于二元对立。金代曾禁用铸钱，力图以打击代表公众信用的金属信用的方式来树立官方信用权威。但滥发纸钞本身才是官方信用的敌人。为了消除滥发纸钞这一官方信用自我消解的弊端，元代在禁用金银的同时，确立以白银为本位的发钞制度。这样，铸钱与纸钞之间构成所谓“子母相权”关系，以铜钱为信用纸钞的信用担保者的货币体系已经无可回避。“至正之宝”等“权钞”铜钱历经金、元两朝酝酿，公然行世，可以说是制钱官方在根本上未获公众信用授权并且也不对公众信用负责的时代，不得不向代表公众信用的金属信用做出让步的一个历史事件。

明·清·民国 古钱币

明代初期承袭元制，以“大明宝钞”行天下。但官方信用不受制于公众信用的问题仍然悬而未决。明代钱制的演变历程，清晰地展示了自认为公众信用代表人的官方信用，与公众信用的传统代表形式金属信用之间，随王朝盛衰彼此消长的历史。明初，初登正统的王朝，以受命于天（即传统的授权形式）的姿态，自信并且据信为公众信用的合法代表。这个时期是“大明宝钞”通行天下，金银受禁，铸钱闲置的时期。很快，王朝本身受命方式的伪合法性暴露出来，官方信用与公众信用日渐违忤。金属信用所代表的公众信用权力与日俱进，以

之权衡官方信用的体制渐成定势。

清代发展了明末时已成定局的银、铜复本位体制。顺治八年颁行十年后即遭废止的纸钞和后来的大清宝钞从未获得过在金、元、明三代一度获得的那种流通地位。金属信用与官方专制信用之间经历数朝的较量，终于以试图背离“钞本”专制信用的纸钞的衰竭而告终结。
清代铸币除了天命汉钱、天聪汉钱（清立国前）是老满文铸币，顺治以后各朝铸币均取汉文面文，满、汉文背纪局、纪值的制式。王朝后期张之洞在两广总督任内首开机器制币一式。机器制币早期的格式仍遵方孔圆钱的传统中国古钱形制和以文字为钱文的传统。因此，

这部分机制币仍可视为中国古代钱币体系的又一创新形式。
清代铸币权分属散步全国的各地方制钱机构。各省可随时奏准设局铸钱。原则上各局铸钱归各地专用。顺治朝曾有集中铸币权于中央的政策，但施行四年即遭废止。直到后来的机制币时期，才有设立天津造币总厂（1905年）和归并制造铜元局厂，建立统一铸币体系的政策。
然而，清末建立的统一的机制造币体系，并未立即消除各省设局鼓铸这一沿袭二百余年的传统。直到民国初年，民国政府和各省仍有中国钱系的作品问世。因此，清末民初的货币体系终于只能是中国钱系的各色铸品、机制中国钱、仿西洋铜、银元和外国银洋、官私银行钱庄钞票等混杂流通的一个空前庞杂的体系。

现在：

一百元

根据中华人民共和国第268号国务院令，中国人民银行于1999年10月1日在全国发行第五套（1999年版）人民币100元券。新版人民币币发行后与现行人民币等值流通，具有相同的货币职能。

一、钞票特征
主色调为红色，票幅长155mm、宽77mm。正面主景为毛泽东头像，左侧为椭圆形花卉图案，票面左上方为中华人民共和国“国徽”图案，右下方为盲文面额标记。背面主景为“人民大会堂”图案，左侧为人民大会堂内圆柱图案，票面右上方为“中国人民银行”汉语拼音字母和蒙、藏、维、壮四种民族文字的“中国人民银行”字样和面额。
二、防伪特征
1、固定人像水印：位于正面左侧空白处，迎光透视，可见与主景人像相同、立体感很强的毛泽东头像水印。
2、红、蓝彩色纤维：在票面的空白处，可看到纸张中有红色和蓝色纤维。
3、磁性微文字安全线：钞票纸中的安全线，迎光观察，可见“RMB100”微小文字，仪器检测有磁性。
4、手工雕刻关像：正面主景毛泽东头像，采用手工雕刻凹版印刷工艺，形象逼真、传神，凹凸感强，易于识别。
5、隐形面额数字：正面右上方有一椭圆形图案，将钞票置于与眼睛接近平等的位置、面对光源作平面旋转45度或90度角，即可看到面额“100”字样。
6、胶印缩微文字：正面上方椭圆形图案中，多处印有胶印缩微文字，在放大镜下可看到“RMB”和“RMB100”字样。
7、光变油墨面额数字：正面左下方“100”字样，与票面垂直角度观察为绿色，倾斜一定角度则变为蓝色。
8、阴阳互补对印图案：票面下面左下方和背面右下方均有圆形局部图案，迎光观察，正背面图案重合并组合成一个完整的古钱币图案。
9、雕刻凹版印刷：正面主景毛泽东头像、中国人民银行行名、盲文及背面主景人民大会堂等均采用雕刻凹版印刷，用手指触摸有明显凹、凸感。
10、横竖双号码：正面采用横竖双号码印刷（均为两位冠字、八位号码）。横号码为黑色，竖号码为蓝色。

五十元

第五套人民币50元纸币主色调为绿色，票幅长150mm、宽70mm。正面主景为毛泽东头像，左侧为“中国人民银行”行名、阿拉伯数字“50”、面额“伍拾圆”字样和花卉图案，左上角为中华人民共和国国徽图案，右下角为盲文面额标记，票面正面印有横竖双号码。背面主景为“布达拉宫”图案，右上方为“中国人民银行”汉语拼音字母和蒙、藏、维、壮四种民族文字的“中国人民银行”字样和面额

二十元

第五套人民币纸20元主要特征主色调为棕色，票幅长145mm、宽70mm。票面正面主景为毛泽东头像，左侧为“中国人民银行”行名、阿拉伯数字“20”、面额“贰拾圆”和花卉图案，票面左上方为中华人民共和国“国徽”图案，左下方印有双色横号码，右下方为盲文面额标记。票面背面主景为“桂林山水”图案，票面右上方为“中国人民银行”汉语拼音字母和蒙、藏、维、壮4种民族文字的“中国人民银行”字样和面额。
第五套人民币20元的防伪措施有：固定花绘水印、红蓝彩色纤维、安全线、手工雕刻头像、隐形面额数字、胶印微缩文字、雕刻凹版印刷和双色横号码等8项防伪措施。

十元

第五套人民币10元纸币主色调为蓝黑色，票幅长140mm、宽70mm。正面主景为毛泽东头像，左侧为“中国人民银行”行名、阿拉伯数字“10”、面额“拾圆”字样和花卉图案，左上角为中华人民共和国国徽图案，左下角印有双色横号码，右下方为盲文面额标记。背面主景为“长江三峡”图案，右上方为“中国人民银行”汉语拼音字母和蒙、藏、维、壮四种民族文字的“中国人民银行”字样和面额。

一元

全新的第五套人民币1元纸币正式“面世”。新版1元纸币正面主景是毛泽东头像，正背面有6项防伪特征。

此次发行的新版1元纸币，票幅尺寸长130毫米、宽63毫米，主色调为橄榄绿。具有6项防伪技术，防伪技术达到国际先进水平。有关人士称，此版1元纸币手感强烈，“闭着眼睛就能感觉到”。

据了解，中国人民银行自1999年10月1日起陆续发行第五套人民币，包括100元、50元、20元、10元、5元、1元、5角和1角8种面额，目前大多已在市场上流通。在第五套人民币中，1元面额的只有硬币，而此次发行的1元纸币是对以前发行1元硬币的“补充”。第五套人民币与现行人民币的比率为1比1。第五套人民币发行后，与现行人民币混合流通，具有同等的货币职能。

由于我国近年来经济持续增长，第五套人民币发行以后，1元人民币的流通数量远远无法满足经济领域的需要，再加上1元硬币的生产过程较长，目前全国部分地区已经出现1元人民币告急的情况，所以要发行1元纸币。

记者今天上午走访了几个银行网点，并未发现新版1元纸币的踪迹。

防伪特征

★固定花卉水印：位于正面左侧空白处，迎光透视，可以看到立体感很强的兰花水印。

★手工雕刻头像：正面主景毛泽东头像，采用手工雕刻凹版印刷工艺，形象逼真、传神，凹凸感强，易于识别。

★隐形面额数字：正面右上方有一装饰图案，将票面置于与眼睛接近平行的位置，面对光源作上下倾斜晃动，可看到面额数字“1”字样。

★胶印缩微文字：背面下方胶印图案中，印有缩微文字“人民币”和“RMB1”字样。

★雕刻凹版印刷：正面主景毛泽东头像、“中国人民银行”行名、面额数字、盲文面额标记等均采用雕刻凹版印刷，用手指触摸有明显凹凸感。

★ 双色横号码：正面印有双色横号码，左侧部分为红色，右侧部分为黑色。

㈧ 我急需有关中国经济发展的英文资料！！！

RMB exchange rate reform--decided out of China's own need
When the national economic statistics of the first half of this year were just released on July 20, people were immersed in analysis and judgment of the economic situation.

At 7:00 on the evening of July 21, after only one day, the People's Bank of China (PBOC), the central bank, announced a world-shaking news: With approval from the State Council, from July 21, China began to institute a regulated, managed floating exchange rate regime based on market supply and demand and in reference to a basket of currencies.

A reform independently decided out of own need
The reform is an important policy decision made out of the actual needs of China's reform and development, rather than under certain international pressure.

As is emphasized by Zhou Xiaochuan, governor of the central bank: "This represents a kind of self-decision and is the need of China's march to a socialist market economy and optimization of resources allocation and the need for reform and long-term stable development, rather than a result gained after communication and consultation with other countries."

In 1994, China reformed its double-track exchange rate system and introced the unification of exchange rates. After the unification, China instituted a managed floating exchange rate regime based on market supply and demand.

In plain words, this exchange rate system means: Selling or buying foreign exchange by enterprises and indivials has to be carried out through designated foreign exchange banks; these designated banks, in turn, enter the inter-bank foreign exchange market, or sell their surplus foreign exchange to other banks to gain the people's currency, or use the RMB to buy foreign currencies from other banks to make up the shortage of foreign exchange; this buying and selling, supply and demand give rise to price parity between the RMB and foreign currencies, or called the RMB exchange rate; meanwhile, the central bank sets up a certain floating limit to the exchange rate, foreign exchange is bought up when supply exceeds demand, sold out when it is in short supply. Doing so aims to maintain a basic stability of the RMB exchange rate through such a regulating method.

Before 1997, RMB exchange rate was stable with a bit rise, and for this reason, people at home and abroad had growing confidence in the RMB. But thereafter the Asian financial crisis broke out, in order to prevent an alternate depreciation of currencies in Asian neighbors and a resultant deepening of the crisis, China, as a large responsible country, promised not to devalue the RMB and took the initiative to narrow the floating band of exchange rate, but the goal for instituting a managed floating exchange rate regime remained unchanged.

We should say that the managed floating exchange rate system based on market supply and demand conforms to China's national conditions for it adapts to the stage of China's economic development, the level of financial supervision and administration and enterprises' sustainability. However, along with the evolvement of the situation, the necessity of perfecting the RMB exchange rate determination mechanism has revealed itself with each passing day. In other words, what is to be changed in the RMB exchange rate reform is not the RMB exchange rate system, still less permission of a revaluation, but rather it is designed to perfect the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism.

Improving the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism is the inherent requirement for the establishment of a sound socialist market economy system, as well as an important content of deepening reform to the economic-financial system and strengthening the macro-control system.

In recent years, along with the rapid growth of China's exports and foreign investments, correspondingly, in the balance of payments statement, it is shown a "double surpluses" of the current account and the capital account; in the inter-bank foreign exchange market, it is manifested as a continuous stream of foreign exchange and that the supply exceeds the demand.

In order to stabilize the RMB exchange rate, the central bank cannot but passively purchase a huge amount of foreign exchange, correspondingly, it will provide a huge supply of RMB, consequently increasing the monetary base.

Statistics show that the basic currency supplied in such a way has accounted for 90 percent of the total of basic currency. The independence of the monetary policy is subject to serious challenge. The too rapid growth of money supply would give rise to such problems as investment expansion, inflationary pressure and assets bubble.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism and allowing it to be more elastic make it possible to give better play to the basic role of the market in the allocation of resources; this helps improve the initiative and efficiency of financial regulation and control and thus helps strengthen and improve macro regulation and control.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism is concive to implementation of the strategy for the sustainable development of the economy based mainly on domestic demand and to optimization of resources allocation.

Experts put it frankly that if the original exchange rate formation mechanism is stuck to for a long time, it will likely affect improvement of the economic structure.

Firstly, it will encourage the uneven development between foreign-related departments and domestic departments.

Secondly, it will affect the coordinated proportion among the three major instries (primary, secondary and tertiary).

Thirdly, it will hamper the normal transfer of instry from coastal areas to the inland. Inordinate stability of the exchange rate makes it possible for rough machining labor-intensive proction to exist in coastal areas and to lack driving force and pressure to shift toward central and western regions.

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism and properly increasing the elasticity of exchange rate will increase the uncertainty of risk capital flows gains, which helps curb massive unilateral flows of capital, guard against and obviate financial risks and maintain financial stability.

Excessive rigidity of exchange rate reces the exchange rate risks of venture capital flows, is likely to cause massive in and out of venture capital and to bring impacts on economic development and financial stability. The Mexican financial crisis in 1994 and the Asian financial crisis in 1997 were both directly associated with this.

Regarding this, Zhou Xiaochuan has a very vivid metaphor. He said: "A fixed exchange rate is like a shield in the hand when fighting, however you attack me, I will remain unmoved; if I fail to hold on, the impact will cause influence. A floating exchange rate is like a foam-rubber cushion, if you want to fight your way in, I'll react softly, ok, you've come in, but I won't let you hit me; when you want to quit, I'll give you a pinch and let you go only after you have taken a layer of your skin off."

Perfecting the RMB exchange rate formation mechanism facilitates the development of the foreign economy. This move helps spur the enterprise to strengthen technical innovation, management innovation and the creation of a brand name and to strengthen marketing, after-sale service, thereby fundamentally enhance the enterprise's competitiveness; it also helps maintain a basic balance between import and export and improve trading conditions.

Reform is a must and is imminent.

Experts put it frankly that if RMB exchange rate reform is delayed indefinitely, it will bring about three major risks.

First is the risk of domestic economic bubble. If the monetary base grows too big, it will cause inflation when flowing to the commodity market; when the money flows to the capital market, it will lead to a bubble of assets. The emergence of economic bubble will aggravate the frailty of the financial system and will rece the capability to resist monetary impacts.

Second is the risk of weakening the independence of monetary policy. The principle of the "Mundell ternary paradox" tells us that of the three things: full capital opening, independent monetary policy and stable exchange rate, a country can only choose two, and cannot have all three.

Third is the risk of a reversion of the situation. If the exchange rate must be reformed, then an active reform is better than a passive one; reform carried out under revaluation pressure is better than reform carried out under devaluation pressure.

Internationally, since the 1990s, Poland has experienced the evolution from a managed floating exchange rate system under which its currency was pegged to one, or a basket of currencies to a free floating exchange rate system. Because its exchange rate system was actively adjusted in light of changes in domestic and foreign situations, therefore it could avoid to the maximum possible economic-social upheavals.

While Thailand had, before 1997, all along pegged its currency to the US dollar without changing its exchange rate system, as a result, the country was compelled to drastically devalue its currency ring the Asian financial crisis, thus resulting in the outbreak of the monetary and financial crisis.

The opportunity for exchange rate reform often appears only in a twinkle. When opportunity comes, it is imperative to seize it!

To put it in a nutshell, RMB exchange rate reform is by no means "you want me to reform it", but rather it is "I want to change it"!

Part 1. Part 2. Part 3. Part 4. Part 5. Part 6. Part 7. Part 8.

㈨ 英语作文:中国近期的经济发展变化

写环保与经济发展好
如Study the two pictures above carefully and write an essay entitled “On the Relationship between Environment and Economy” In the essay, you should (1) describe the pictures and interpret their meaning (2) give your opinion with some proof (3) give your conclusion.You should write about 200
环保与经济发展_英语作文作者：佚名 来源：不详 发布时间：2007-11-1 3:07:35 发布人：lsy1chj2wdh3
Study the two pictures above carefully and write an essay entitled “On the Relationship between Environment and Economy” In the essay, you should (1) describe the pictures and interpret their meaning (2) give your opinion with some proof (3) give your conclusion.You should write about 200

words neatly on ANSWER SHEET 2. (20 points)

On the Relationship between Environment and Economy

The two pictures above are both about the relationship between the environment and the economic development. In the first picture, GDP is on the rise while the environment is drastically polluted. In the second picture, economic efficiency progresses with environmental protection. It’s easy to get the conclusion that development according to the second picture is more reasonable than that in the first one.

In the early development of socialism, our country didn’t pay much attention to the issue of environmental protection and savored the bitterness. Now, the government has taken many measures and is implementing the strategy of “sustainable development”. One aspect of the strategy is to develop the economy and take measures to protect the environment at the same time. In this way, we can develop our country in a sustainable manner and our offspring can have enough resources to develop society. If we don’t put much emphasis on the environment issue and excavate the natural resources blindly, our country will become a barren land sooner or later.

In a word, sustainable development is a reasonable strategy which should be implemented for a long time. The nature is providing us with plentiful resources generously, but it may punish us severely if we don’t care her.