⑴ 求一篇有国际贸易类的英文文献
What Is International Trade?
If you walk into a supermarket and are able to buy South American bananas, Brazilian coffee and a bottle of South African wine, you are experiencing the effects of international trade.
International trade allows us to expand our markets for both goods and services that otherwise may not have been available to us. It is the reason why you can pick between a Japanese, German and American car. As a result of international trade, the market contains greater competition and therefore more competitive prices, which bring a cheaper proct home to the consumer.
What Is International Trade?
International trade is the exchange of goods and services between countries. This type of trade gives rise to a world economy, in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global events. Political change in Asia, for example, could result in an increase in the cost of labor, thereby increasing the manufacturing costs for an American sneaker company based in Malaysia, which would then result in an increase in the price that you have to pay to buy the tennis shoes at your local mall. A decrease in the cost of labor, on the other hand, would result in you having to pay less for your new shoes.
Trading globally gives consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to goods and services not available in their own countries. Almost every kind of proct can be found on the international market: food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewelry, wine, stocks, currencies and water. Services are also traded: tourism, banking, consulting and transportation. A proct that is sold to the global market is an export, and a proct that is bought from the global market is an import. Imports and exports are accounted for in a country's current account in the balance of payments. (For more on this, see the articles What Is The Balance Of Payments? and Understanding The Current Account In The Balance Of Payments.)
Increased Efficiency of Trading Globally
Global trade allows wealthy countries to use their resources - whether labor, technology or capital - more efficiently. Because countries are endowed with different assets and natural resources (land, labor, capital and technology), some countries may proce the same good more efficiently and therefore sell it more cheaply than other countries. If a country cannot efficiently proce an item, it can obtain the item by trading with another country that can. This is known as specialization in international trade.
Let's take a simple example. Country A and Country B both proce cotton sweaters and wine. Country A proces 10 sweaters and six bottles of wine a year while Country B proces six sweaters and 10 bottles of wine a year. Both can proce a total of 16 units. Country A, however, takes three hours to proce the 10 sweaters and two hours to proce the six bottles of wine (total of five hours). Country B, on the other hand, takes one hour to proce 10 sweaters and three hours to proce six bottles of wine (total of four hours).
But these two countries realize that they could proce more by focusing on those procts with which they have a comparative advantage. Country A then begins to proce only wine and Country B proces only cotton sweaters. Each country can now create a specialized output of 20 units per year and trade equal proportions of both procts. As such, each country now has access to 20 units of both procts.
We can see then that for both countries, the opportunity cost of procing both procts is greater than the cost of specializing. More specifically, for each country, the opportunity cost of procing 16 units of both sweaters and wine is 20 units of both procts (after trading). Specialization reces their opportunity cost and therefore maximizes their efficiency in acquiring the goods they need. With the greater supply, the price of each proct would decrease, thus giving an advantage to the end consumer as well.
Note that, in the example above, Country B could proce both wine and cotton more efficiently than Country A (less time). This is called an absolute advantage, and Country B may have it because of a higher level of technology. However, according to international trade theory, even if a country has an absolute advantage over another, it can still benefit from specialization. (For a review of some of these economic concepts, see the Economics Basics tutorial.)
Other Possible Benefits of Trading Globally
International trade not only results in increased efficiency but also allows countries to participate in a global economy, encouraging the opportunity of foreign direct investment (FDI), which is the amount of money that indivials invest into foreign companies and other assets. In theory, economies can therefore grow more efficiently and can more easily become competitive economic participants.
For the receiving government, FDI is a means by which foreign currency and expertise can enter the country. These raise employment levels and, theoretically, lead to a growth in the gross domestic proct. For the investor, FDI offers company expansion and growth, which means higher revenues.
Free Trade vs. Protectionism
As with other theories, there are opposing views. International trade has two contrasting views regarding the level of control placed on trade: free trade and protectionism. Free trade is the simpler of the two theories: a laissez-faire approach, with no restrictions on trade. The main idea is that supply and demand factors, operating on a global scale, will ensure that proction happens efficiently. Therefore, nothing needs to be done to protect or promote trade and growth because market forces will do so automatically.
In contrast, protectionism holds that regulation of international trade is important to ensure that markets function properly. Advocates of this theory believe that market inefficiencies may hamper the benefits of international trade and they aim to guide the market accordingly. Protectionism exists in many different forms, but the most common are tariffs, subsidies and quotas. These strategies attempt to correct any inefficiency in the international market.
Conclusion
As it opens up the opportunity for specialization and therefore more efficient use of resources, international trade has potential to maximize a country's capacity to proce and acquire goods. Opponents of global free trade have argued, however, that international trade still allows for inefficiencies that leave developing nations compromised. What is certain is that the global economy is in a state of continual change and, as it develops, so too must all of its participants.
如果你走进超市，并能买到南美香蕉，巴西咖啡和一瓶南非葡萄酒，您所遇到的影响国际贸易。
国际贸易使我们能够扩大我们的市场，商品和服务，否则可能没有提供给我们。这就是为什么您可以挑选之间日语，德语和美国车。由于国际贸易，市场包含更大的竞争，因此更具有竞争力的价格，由此带来更便宜的产品提供给消费者。
什么是国际贸易？
国际贸易是交流之间的货物和服务的国家。这种类型的贸易引起了世界经济，在这种价格或供应和需求，影响和影响的全球性活动。政治变化，例如，亚洲可能会导致成本增加的劳动力，从而增加了生产成本为美国的耐克公司总部设在马来西亚，然后导致价格上升，你不得不花钱购买在网球鞋在您当地的商场。在减少的劳动力成本，另一方面，将导致您不需要支付较少为您的新鞋。
贸易在全球范围和国家为消费者提供的机会接触到商品和服务不提供在自己的国家。几乎每一种产品可以在国际市场：食品，衣服，零件，石油，珠宝，葡萄酒，股票，货币和水。服务也是交易：旅游，金融，咨询和运输。产品销往全球市场的出口，和一种产品，是购买的全球市场是一个进口。进口和出口都是以一国的经常账户的国际收支。 （欲了解更多关于这个，请参阅文章什么是国际收支平衡？和了解目前帐户收支平衡。 ）
提高效率，在全球范围内的交易
全球贸易允许富裕国家利用它们的资源-无论是劳动，技术或资本-更有效率。由于国家赋予了不同的资产和自然资源（土地，劳动力，资本和技术），一些国家可能产生同样的好，因此更有效地销售更便宜比其他国家。如果一个国家不能有效地产生一个项目，它可以取得该项目的贸易与其他国家可以。这就是所谓的专业化的国际贸易。
让我们来一个简单的例子。 A国和乙国毛衣都生产棉花和葡萄酒。 A国生产10毛衣和六瓶葡萄酒，而乙国生产6毛衣和10瓶葡萄酒一年。既可以产生，共有16个单位。 A国，但是，需要3个小时生产10毛衣和两小时内产生的6瓶葡萄酒（共5个小时） 。 B国，另一方面，需要一小时生产10毛衣和三个小时的生产六瓶葡萄酒（共4个小时） 。
但是这两个国家认识到，他们可以生产更多的是侧重于这些产品，他们具有相对优势。 A国然后开始只生产葡萄酒和乙国只生产棉花毛衣。每个国家现在可以创建一个专门的产出20个单位，每年的贸易同等比例的两种产品。因此，每个国家现在已进入20个单位的这两种产品。
我们可以看到那两个国家的机会成本，生产这两种产品是大于成本的专业。更具体而言，每个国家的机会成本，生产16单位都毛衣和葡萄酒为20单位的两种产品（交易）。专业化降低其机会成本，因此，最大限度地提高其效率获取他们所需要的货物。随着更多的供应，每个产品的价格将下降，从而有利于最终消费者以及。
请注意，在上面的例子中，国家B可以同时生产葡萄酒和棉花比国家更有效的（更少的时间）。这就是所谓的绝对优势，乙国可能是因为较高的技术水平。然而，根据国际贸易理论，即使一个国家拥有绝对优势，另外，它仍然可以受益于专业化。（审查其中的一些经济概念，请参阅经济学基础知识教程。 ）
其他可能的好处的交易在全球范围内
国际贸易的结果，不仅提高了效率，而且也使国家参与全球经济，鼓励的机会，外国直接投资（ FDI ） ，这是的金额，个人投资于外国公司和其他资产。从理论上讲，经济增长因此可以更有效，也更容易成为有竞争力的经济参与者。
为接受政府，外国直接投资是一种手段，外汇和专门知识可以进入该国。这些提高就业水平，从理论上讲，导致经济增长在国内生产总值。为投资者，外国直接投资提供了公司扩张和增长，这意味着更高的收入。
自由贸易与保护主义
至于其他的理论，有反对意见。国际贸易有两种截然不同的看法程度的控制放在贸易：自由贸易和保护主义。自由贸易是简单的两种理论：一种放任自流的方式，没有任何的贸易限制。主要的想法是，供应和需求的因素，在全球范围经营，将确保发生生产效率。因此，没有什么需要做，以保护或促进贸易和市场力量的增长，因为这样做将自动。
与此相反，保护主义认为调节国际贸易重要的是要确保市场的正常运作。主张这一理论认为，市场的低效率可能妨碍国际贸易的利益，他们的目的是引导市场相应。保护主义存在于许多不同的形式，但最常见的是关税，补贴和配额。这些战略企图，以纠正任何效率不高在国际市场上。
结论
因为它开辟了专门的机会，因此更有效地利用资源，国际贸易的潜力最大限度地发挥一个国家的能力，以生产和收购货物。反对者的全球自由贸易的主张，但是，国际贸易仍然允许效率低下离开发展中国家的损害。可以肯定的是，全球经济正处于不断的变化，因为它的发展，也必须在其所有与会者。
⑵ 求一篇关于国际贸易壁垒的英文文章
China is a developing country, the overall level of economic development is not high, behind the structure of export commodities, a lower grade of procts. At present, the Technical Barriers to Trade of China's export trade has become a major obstacle to development. According to the State Intellectual Property Office related to Science and Technology Association in 2002 academic annual meeting, the current world trade barriers from 80% of the technical barriers to trade. In recent years, 60% of export enterprises have met with varying degrees of foreign technical barriers to trade, the impact of China's total export volume of 25%. According to the Ministry of Commerce statistics, Electrical and Mechanical Services in 2002, light instries, such as the six of the 21 categories of procts subjected to technical barriers to trade, business disruption as much as 71 percent, hampered by proct ratio of 39%, the amount of loss of 17,000,000,000 U.S. dollars. Technical Barriers to Trade on China's export enterprises to rece the international market share, lost trading opportunities, out of the market, weaken the competitiveness of our procts, and foreign consumers some of China's agricultural procts, food procts, in particular the decline in confidence, China's exports to the long-term Negative effects. As a result, research on Technical Barriers to Trade of the coping strategies in order to promote the development of China's export trade has now become an important topic.
⑶ 求 一篇关于外贸，外汇储备之类的英文文章！！
中国外汇储备今年首季再增
China's build up of FX reserves
Lex
Friday, April 25, 2008
China's foreign exchange reserves rose by $154bn ring the first quarter, a record even by the country's own impressive standards. Yet there are some clues that this may understate the build up of foreign assets, in turn suggesting “hot money” flows into China have accelerated and that holding down the exchange rate is getting harder.
今年第一季度，中国外汇储备增长1540亿美元，即便按照中国惊人的增长标准，这也是一个创纪录的数字。然而，一些迹象表明，这可能还低估了外汇资产的增长，进而说明“热钱”涌入中国的速度有所加快，而压低汇率的难度正不断加大。
China has not yet published a full set of current and capital accounts for the first quarter. That leaves the reserves number as the best proxy. There are two reasons to believe that it understates the position. First, the People's Bank of China is transferring funds to China Investment Corp, the fledgeling sovereign wealth fund with a $200bn kitty. The timing is unclear, but economists estimate that up to $100bn of that target could have been shifted to CIC in the first quarter.
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中国尚未发布今年第一季度经常账户及资本账户的整套数据。外汇储备数据因此成为了最佳分析替代。之所以说该数据低估了目前的形势，原因有两点：首先，中国人民银行(PB0C)正向新成立的主权财富基金中国投资有限责任公司(China Investment Corp)转移资金。具体时间尚不确定，但经济学家估计，其中多达1000亿美元可能已于第一季度转到中投。中投的资本金总额为2000亿美元。
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Second, the PBoC's accounts give some clues that further piles of foreign exchange are being parked at commercial banks. “Other foreign assets”, a line item on the central bank's accounts that has barely budged in four years, began rising in August last year. Anecdotal evidence suggests commercial banks may be meeting PBoC reserve requirements by accumulating foreign currency. Stone & McCarthy estimate that 75 per cent of the rise in reserve requirements may have been dollar denominated. On that basis, reserve hikes in January and March meant about $42.5bn further accumulation of foreign assets in the first quarter.
其次，中国人民银行的账户提供了一些线索，即额外增加的外汇被放在了商业银行。央行账户上的“其它外国资产”项4年来几乎没有变动，但从去年8月份开始上升。坊间证据显示，商业银行可能正通过累积外币，来达到央行的存款准备金率要求。Stone & McCarthy估计，在存款准备金的增加额中，有75%可能是以美元的形式。在此基础上，今年1月和3月上调准备金率意味着，今年第一季度又累积约425亿美元的外汇资产。
There are other complicating factors. It is unclear, for example, how much marked-to-market gains are included in the reserves figure. But all in, the actual rate of reserves accumulation in the first quarter might be up to $100bn higher than the published number suggests. There is reason to be spooked by this. Rising hot money inflows, which are largely a bet on renminbi appreciation, show that Beijing's capital controls are inadequate. Already China's claims on the US equate to about one-third of China's gross domestic proct, estimates economist Brad Setser. How much longer it can accumulate foreign assets to absorb inflows is questionable.
还有其它一些复杂的因素。例如，目前尚不清楚，外汇储备数据中包括多少以市价标价的增加额。但总之，今年第一季度外汇储备的实际增加额，可能比公布的数字高出多达1000亿美元。人们有理由对此感到担心。热钱流入的不断加速表明，中国政府的资本管制是不够的。这些热钱主要是押注人民币升值。经济学家布拉德•塞斯特(Brad Setser)估计，中国的外汇储备已占中国国内生产总值(GDP)的三分之一左右。在累积外国资产以吸收资金流入方面，中国还能坚持多久，这一点令人感到怀疑。
⑷ 求2~3篇的关于国际贸易的英文文章~~谢谢
International trade is the exchange of capital, goods and services across international boundaries or territories.[1] In most countries, it represents a significant share of GDP. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Instrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. International trade is a major source of economic revenue for any nation that is considered a world power. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services proced within their own borders.
International trade is in principle not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade does not change fundamentally depending on whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs e to border delays and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or a different culture.
Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of proction such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labor or other factors of proction. Then trade in good and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of proction. Instead of importing the factor of proction a country can import goods that make intensive use of the factor of proction and are thus embodying the respective factor. An example is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor the United States is importing goods from China that were proced with Chinese labor.
International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch of international economics.
Models
Several different models have been proposed to predict patterns of trade and to analyze the effects of trade policies such as tariffs.
[edit] Ricardian model
Main article: Ricardian model
The Ricardian model focuses on comparative advantage and is perhaps the most important concept in international trade theory. In a Ricardian model, countries specialize in procing what they proce best. Unlike other models, the Ricardian framework predicts that countries will fully specialize instead of procing a broad array of goods. Also, the Ricardian model does not directly consider factor endowments, such as the relative amounts of labor and capital within a country.
[edit] Heckscher-Ohlin model
Main article: Heckscher-Ohlin model
The Heckscher-Ohlin model was proced as an alternative to the Ricardian model of basic comparative advantage. Despite its greater complexity it did not prove much more accurate in its predictions. However from a theoretical point of view it did provide an elegant solution by incorporating the neoclassical price mechanism into international trade theory.
The theory argues that the pattern of international trade is determined by differences in factor endowments. It predicts that countries will export those goods that make intensive use of locally abundant factors and will import goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce. Empirical problems with the H-O model, known as the Leontief paradox, were exposed in empirical tests by Wassily Leontief who found that the United States tended to export labor intensive goods despite having a capital abundance.
[edit] Specific factors model
In this model, labour mobility between instries is possible while capital is immobile between instries in the short-run. Thus, this model can be interpreted as a 'short run' version of the Heckscher-Ohlin model. The specific factors name refers to the given that in the short-run specific factors of proction, such as physical capital, are not easily transferable between instries. The theory suggests that if there is an increase in the price of a good, the owners of the factor of proction specific to that good will profit in real terms. Additionally, owners of opposing specific factors of proction (i.e. labour and capital) are likely to have opposing agendas when lobbying for controls over immigration of labour. Conversely, both owners of capital and labour profit in real terms from an increase in the capital endowment. This model is ideal for particular instries. This model is ideal for understanding income distribution but awkward for discussing the pattern of trade!
[edit] New Trade Theory
Main article: New Trade Theory
New Trade theory tries to explain several facts about trade, which the two main models above have difficulty with. These include the fact that most trade is between countries with similar factor endowment and proctivity levels, and the large amount of multinational proction (ie foreign direct investment) which exists. In one example of this framework, the economy exhibits monopolistic competition, and increasing returns to scale.
[edit] Gravity model
Main article: Gravity model of trade
The Gravity model of trade presents a more empirical analysis of trading patterns rather than the more theoretical models discussed above. The gravity model, in its basic form, predicts trade based on the distance between countries and the interaction of the countries' economic sizes. The model mimics the Newtonian law of gravity which also considers distance and physical size between two objects. The model has been proven to be empirically strong through econometric analysis. Other factors such as income level, diplomatic relationships between countries, and trade policies are also included in expanded versions of the model.
[edit] Regulation of international trade
Traditionally trade was regulated through bilateral treaties between two nations. For centuries under the belief in Mercantilism most nations had high tariffs and many restrictions on international trade. In the 19th century, especially in Britain, a belief in free trade became paramount. This belief became the dominant thinking among western nations since then despite the acknowledgement that adoption of the policy coincided with the general decline of Great Britain. In the years since the Second World War, controversial multilateral treaties like the GATT and World Trade Organization have attempted to create a globally regulated trade structure. These trade agreements have often resulted in protest and discontent with claims of unfair trade that is not mutually beneficial.
Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations, though they often engage in selective protectionism for those instries which are strategically important such as the protective tariffs applied to agriculture by the United States and Europe. The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were both strong advocates of free trade when they were economically dominant, today the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Japan are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries (such as India, China and Russia) are increasingly becoming advocates of free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves. As tariff levels fall there is also an increasing willingness to negotiate non tariff measures, including foreign direct investment, procurement and trade facilitation. The latter looks at the transaction cost associated with meeting trade and customs proceres.
Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism. This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services.
During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic instries. This occurred around the world ring the Great Depression. Many economists have attempted to portray tariffs as the underlining reason behind the collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression.
The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, NAFTA between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 27 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) failed largely e to opposition from the populations of Latin American nations. Similar agreements such as the MAI (Multilateral Agreement on Investment) have also failed in recent years.
[edit] Risks in international trade
The risks that exist in international trade can be divided into two major groups
⑸ 哪有关于国际贸易的文章,英文版,2万字左右,最好有中文翻译
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_trade有关国际贸易的英文介绍 http://www.echeat.com/essay.php?t=26678这篇是国际贸易与全球化,英文的 http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/24051.html关于提高中国国际贸易的文章 英文的 http://www.oppapers.com/essays/Advantages-Disadvantages-International-Trade/162044国际贸易的利弊 http://www.customwritings.com/blog/sample-essays/international-trade-essay.html这篇都是关于国际贸易的 ,字数很多,你可以看看呵呵 希望对你有帮助~~
⑹ 谁可以给我一些关于【国际贸易】的【英文文章】，最好是没有译文的那种。写论文需要这些资料。谢谢
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网址是：http://ishare.iask.sina.com.cn/
⑺ 求一篇有关国际经济与贸易的英语文章!
Today, the foreign trade of the country or region's economic development is playing an increasingly important role. one country to achieve rapid economic development of economy must learn to use both international and domestic market. foreign trade, by removing the rewards of resources optimization disposition. the trade of the analysis is usually divided into of analysis and the structural analysis, the total amount is to analyze questions from the angle, and the structural analysis from the perspective of the importance of examining trade act.And structure of foreign trade is a national or regional economic development and instrial structure and commodities in international competition, in the international division of labour and international trade in a comprehensive response and commodity structure and regional structure is an important part of the structure of foreign trade. china's accession to wto in 2001, foreign trade has increased rapidly to become the united states, the two countries of the world's third largest trader, but with the rapid development of our foreign trade.The structural problems more and more manifest, for example, the commodity structure is irrational and exports remained low added value of procts. moreover, our foreign trade in merchandise trade is far greater than service trade, so the study of our foreign trade structure is a study of our proct import and export commodity structure, optimize. the article from our foreign trade structure of goods and regional structure has to start.Analysed our import and export trade, and finally made to realize the import and export of strategic goals. the article falls into five chapters, the first three chapters to focus on the development of our foreign trade and the structure of foreign trade in goods and regional structure, the fourth chapter, the introction of our foreign trade, most of the current structure of foreign trade import and export trade and development in order to achieve the strategic objective measures and export of the regrouping.
当今社会，对外贸易在国家或者地区的经济发展中扮演着越来越重要的角色。一国要获得经济快速的经济发展，必须学会利用国际国内两个市场。通过对外贸易，进行物产的互通有无，从而实现资源的优化配置。对贸易行为的分析通常分为总量分析和结构分析，总量分析是从量的角度分析问题，而结构分析更注重从质的角度考察贸易行为。而对外贸易结构是一国或地区经济技术发展水平、产业结构状况、商品国际竞争能力、在国际分工和国际贸易中的地位等的综合反映，而商品结构和区域结构是对外贸易结构的重要组成部分。中国从2001年加入WTO以来，对外贸易快速增长，以成为即美、日两国以后的世界第三大贸易国，但是随着我国对外贸易的快速发展，在结构上的问题越来越多的显现出来，例如商品结构的不合理，出口产品仍然是低附加值产品。而且，我国的对外贸易中商品贸易额远远大于服务贸易额，因此研究我国的对外贸易结构主要是研究我国的商品进出口贸易，达到商品结构的优化。本文将从我国对外贸易结构中的商品结构和区域结构入手，来分析我国的进出口贸易，最后提出为了实现进出口贸易战略目标的措施。全文分为五章，前三章主要讲我国对外贸易的发展现状和对外贸易结构中的商品结构和区域结构的分析,第四章讲,我国在引入外资时对我国进出口贸易的影响,最针对当前的对外贸易结构,提出进出口贸易发展中为了实现战略目标的措施和出口商品的优化措施。
⑻ 求一篇有关国际贸易的英文版论文
Investment
liberalization
and
international
trade
Abstract
This
paper
estimates
the
cross-price
elasticity
of
exports
with
respect
to
investment
costs
for
bilateral
relations
between
36
countries.
We
show
that
the
effect
of
recing
foreign
direct
investment
costs
on
exports
depends
on
country
characteristics
and
trade
costs
as
predicted
by
the
[Markusen,
1997
and
Markusen,
2002]
model.
When
countries
differ
in
relative
factor
endowments
and
trade
costs
are
low,
investment
liberalization
stimulates
exports,
whereas
when
countries
are
similar
in
terms
of
relative
factor
endowments
and
size,
and
trade
costs
are
moderate
to
high,
investment
liberalization
reces
exports.
Author
Keywords:
Exports;
Foreign
direct
investment;
International
trade;
Investment
costs;
Investment
liberalization
-----------
是一个PDF,你看看摘要,觉得可以我传你.
还有很多,反正就是关于international
trade..
⑼ 求一篇与国际贸易相关的英文文章
国际贸易International trade is the exchange of capital, goods and services across international boundaries or territories.[1] In most countries, it represents a significant share of GDP. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Instrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. International trade is a major source of economic revenue for any nation that is considered a world power. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services proced within their own borders.
International trade is in principle not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade does not change fundamentally depending on whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs e to border delays and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or a different culture.
Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of proction such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labor or other factors of proction. Then trade in good and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of proction. Instead of importing the factor of proction a country can import goods that make intensive use of the factor of proction and are thus embodying the respective factor. An example is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor the United States is importing goods from China that were proced with Chinese labor.
International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch of international economics.
Models
Several different models have been proposed to predict patterns of trade and to analyze the effects of trade policies such as tariffs.
[edit] Ricardian model
Main article: Ricardian model
The Ricardian model focuses on comparative advantage and is perhaps the most important concept in international trade theory. In a Ricardian model, countries specialize in procing what they proce best. Unlike other models, the Ricardian framework predicts that countries will fully specialize instead of procing a broad array of goods. Also, the Ricardian model does not directly consider factor endowments, such as the relative amounts of labor and capital within a country.
[edit] Heckscher-Ohlin model
Main article: Heckscher-Ohlin model
The Heckscher-Ohlin model was proced as an alternative to the Ricardian model of basic comparative advantage. Despite its greater complexity it did not prove much more accurate in its predictions. However from a theoretical point of view it did provide an elegant solution by incorporating the neoclassical price mechanism into international trade theory.
The theory argues that the pattern of international trade is determined by differences in factor endowments. It predicts that countries will export those goods that make intensive use of locally abundant factors and will import goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce. Empirical problems with the H-O model, known as the Leontief paradox, were exposed in empirical tests by Wassily Leontief who found that the United States tended to export labor intensive goods despite having a capital abundance.
[edit] Specific factors model
In this model, labour mobility between instries is possible while capital is immobile between instries in the short-run. Thus, this model can be interpreted as a 'short run' version of the Heckscher-Ohlin model. The specific factors name refers to the given that in the short-run specific factors of proction, such as physical capital, are not easily transferable between instries. The theory suggests that if there is an increase in the price of a good, the owners of the factor of proction specific to that good will profit in real terms. Additionally, owners of opposing specific factors of proction (i.e. labour and capital) are likely to have opposing agendas when lobbying for controls over immigration of labour. Conversely, both owners of capital and labour profit in real terms from an increase in the capital endowment. This model is ideal for particular instries. This model is ideal for understanding income distribution but awkward for discussing the pattern of trade!
[edit] New Trade Theory
Main article: New Trade Theory
New Trade theory tries to explain several facts about trade, which the two main models above have difficulty with. These include the fact that most trade is between countries with similar factor endowment and proctivity levels, and the large amount of multinational proction (ie foreign direct investment) which exists. In one example of this framework, the economy exhibits monopolistic competition, and increasing returns to scale.
[edit] Gravity model
Main article: Gravity model of trade
The Gravity model of trade presents a more empirical analysis of trading patterns rather than the more theoretical models discussed above. The gravity model, in its basic form, predicts trade based on the distance between countries and the interaction of the countries' economic sizes. The model mimics the Newtonian law of gravity which also considers distance and physical size between two objects. The model has been proven to be empirically strong through econometric analysis. Other factors such as income level, diplomatic relationships between countries, and trade policies are also included in expanded versions of the model.
[edit] Regulation of international trade
Traditionally trade was regulated through bilateral treaties between two nations. For centuries under the belief in Mercantilism most nations had high tariffs and many restrictions on international trade. In the 19th century, especially in Britain, a belief in free trade became paramount. This belief became the dominant thinking among western nations since then despite the acknowledgement that adoption of the policy coincided with the general decline of Great Britain. In the years since the Second World War, controversial multilateral treaties like the GATT and World Trade Organization have attempted to create a globally regulated trade structure. These trade agreements have often resulted in protest and discontent with claims of unfair trade that is not mutually beneficial.
Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations, though they often engage in selective protectionism for those instries which are strategically important such as the protective tariffs applied to agriculture by the United States and Europe. The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were both strong advocates of free trade when they were economically dominant, today the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Japan are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries (such as India, China and Russia) are increasingly becoming advocates of free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves. As tariff levels fall there is also an increasing willingness to negotiate non tariff measures, including foreign direct investment, procurement and trade facilitation. The latter looks at the transaction cost associated with meeting trade and customs proceres.
Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism. This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services.
During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic instries. This occurred around the world ring the Great Depression. Many economists have attempted to portray tariffs as the underlining reason behind the collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression.
The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, NAFTA between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 27 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) failed largely e to opposition from the populations of Latin American nations. Similar agreements such as the MAI (Multilateral Agreement on Investment) have also failed in recent years.
[edit] Risks in international trade
The risks that exist in international trade can be divided into two major groups
[edit] Economic risks
Risk of insolvency of the buyer,
Risk of protracted default - the failure of the buyer to pay the amount e within six months after the e date
Risk of non-acceptance
Surrendering economic sovereignty
Risk of Exchange rate
[edit] Political risks
Risk of cancellation or non-renewal of export or import licences
War risks
Risk of expropriation or confiscation of the importer's company
Risk of the imposition of an import ban after the shipment of the goods
Transfer risk - imposition of exchange controls by the importer's country or foreign currency shortages
Surrendering political sovereignty
Influence of political parties in importer's company
⑽ 找一篇关于”国际贸易的好处”的文章，要英文的～～
http://www.exportvirginia.org/Benefits%20of%20International%20Trade.pdf